Why must the present dictionary form (ル形) rather than the past Ta-form precede 前に (mae ni — 'before doing X'), whereas the Ta-form must precede 後で (ato de — 'after doing X')?

Japanese subordinate tense is relative to the main action rather than absolute: before an action occurs, it is still incomplete, so 前に ALWAYS takes the non-past dictionary form even if the whole sentence is in the past (昨日、寝る前に本を読みました — Yesterday, before going to bed, I read a book). Conversely, 後で requires the completed Ta-form (仕事が終わった後で、飲みに行きましょう).

How do i-adjectives (い形容詞) and na-adjectives (な形容詞) conjugate into present negative, past affirmative, and past negative in plain form?

For i-adjectives (e.g., 高い): drop final い -> 高くない (present negative), 高かった (past affirmative), 高くなかった (past negative), with the irregular いい (good) using the stem よ- (よくない, よかった, よくなかった). For na-adjectives (e.g., 静か[だ]): conjugate like nouns with だ -> 静かじゃない / 静かではない (present negative), 静かだった (past affirmative), 静かじゃなかった (past negative).

Distinguish the two existence verbs あります (arimasu / ある) and います (imasu / いる) in JLPT N5.

います (いる) is used for animate, living beings capable of autonomous movement (people, animals, insects: 犬がいます). あります (ある) is used for inanimate objects, plants/trees, abstract concepts, and scheduled events (本があります, 桜の木があります, 明日テストがあります).

How do ～すぎる (sugiru), ～やすい (yasui), and ～にくい (nikui) attach to verbs and adjectives in JLPT N4?

All three attach to the Verb Masu-stem (連用形): 食べすぎる (eat too much), わかりやすい (easy to understand), 歩きにくい (hard to walk on). For adjectives attaching to ～すぎる, drop the final い of i-adjectives or the な of na-adjectives (高すぎる — too expensive; 静かすぎる — too quiet; Note: いい becomes よすぎる).

In Japanese Kanji, what is the difference between On'yomi (音読み) and Kun'yomi (訓読み), and when is each typically used?

On'yomi (音読み) is the Sino-Japanese reading adapted from historical Chinese pronunciation, commonly used in multi-kanji compound words (熟語, jukugo) such as 水道 (suidō) or 山脈 (sanmyaku), as well as some standalone words (e.g., 本 hon, 駅 eki). Kun'yomi (訓読み) is the native Japanese reading typically used for standalone kanji or kanji with hiragana okurigana (e.g., 水 mizu, 山 yama, 食べる taberu), plus certain native compounds (e.g., 手紙 tegami, 入口 iriguchi).

How do you form and use the Potential Form (可能形, kanōkei) of verbs in JLPT N4, and what particle shift typically occurs?

Godan verbs shift the final '-u' kana to the '-e' row + る (書く -> 書ける, 話す -> 話せる, 読む -> 読める); Ichidan verbs replace る with られる (食べる -> 食べられる, often shortened to 食べれる in casual speech, called ら抜き言葉); Irregular: する -> できる, 来る (kuru) -> 来られる (korareru). The direct object marker を typically shifts to が (漢字が読めます).

Compare the three permission/prohibition/obligation patterns using the Te-form: ～てもいいです, ～てはいけません, and ～なければなりません.

1. Verb-て + もいいです grants or asks permission ('You may do X / Is it okay if I do X?'); 2. Verb-て + はいけません expresses prohibition ('You must not do X'); 3. Verb-ない stem + なければなりません (or ～ないといけません / ～なくてはいけません) expresses obligation ('You must do X' — literally 'If you do not do X, it won't do').

What are the phonetic changes that occur with the counter ～つ (hitotsu, futatsu...) vs Sino-Japanese counters like ～本 (-hon, for long cylindrical objects) and ～匹 (-hiki, for small animals)?

Native counters (ひとつ, ふたつ, みっつ, よっつ, いつつ, むっつ, ななつ, やっつ, ここのつ, とお) count general objects up to 10 with question word いくつ. Sino-Japanese counters beginning with h- (～本 -hon, ～匹 -hiki, ～杯 -hai) undergo rendaku/gemination: 1 (いっぽん / いっぴき), 3 (さんぼん / さんびき), 6 (ろっぽん / ろっぴき), 8 (はっぽん / はっぴき), 10 (じゅっぽん [or じっぽん] / じゅっぴき [or じっぴき]), and question words 何本 (なんぼん) / 何匹 (なんびき).

How do you conjugate verbs into the Volitional Form (意向形, ikōkei — casual 'let's...'), and what are its JLPT N4 grammar uses?

Godan verbs shift the final '-u' kana to the '-o' row + う (行く -> 行こう, 話す -> 話そう); Ichidan verbs replace る with よう (食べる -> 食べよう); Irregular: する -> しよう, 来る (kuru) -> 来よう (koyō). Beyond casual 'let's' (= ましょう), Volitional + と思っています expresses an ongoing intention/plan ('I am thinking of doing X'), and Volitional + とする means 'to try to / be about to do X'.

How do you form the Imperative (命令形, meireikei) and Prohibitive (禁止形, kinshikei) forms in JLPT N4?

For Imperative (command): Godan shifts the final '-u' kana to the '-e' row (書く -> 書け, 走る -> 走れ); Ichidan replaces る with ろ (食べる -> 食べろ, 見る -> 見ろ); Irregular: する -> しろ (or せよ), 来る (kuru) -> 来い (koi). For Prohibitive ('Don't do X!'): attach な directly to the plain dictionary form of ANY verb (書くな, 食べるな, するな, 来るな).

In JLPT N4, compare the four conditional forms: ～と (to), ～ば (ba), ～たら (tara), and ～なら (nara).

1. ～と: Inevitable natural consequence, machine operation, or habitual 'whenever' (cannot be followed by volition, requests, or commands!). 2. ～ば (e-row + ば): General hypothetical or proverb condition focusing on the condition needed for a good result. 3. ～たら (Ta-form + ら): Most versatile ('if/when'), emphasizes completion of condition first and freely allows commands/requests in the main clause. 4. ～なら: Contextual/topic-based 'if it is the case that X (as you just mentioned)...'.

In JLPT N4, how do 間 (aida) and 間に (aida ni) differ in temporal clauses?

A の間, B indicates that action/state B continues throughout the entire duration of state A (夏休みの間、毎日泳ぎました — During the entire summer vacation, I swam every day). A の間に, B indicates that a punctual event B occurs at some point within the time span while state A holds (お母さんが昼寝をしている間に、出かけました — While Mom was taking a nap, I went out).

What are the three main classifications of Japanese verbs, and how do you distinguish Ichidan (Group 2) verbs from Godan (Group 1) verbs that end in -iru or -eru?

1. Godan / Group 1 (五段動詞, u-verbs whose stem vowel shifts across all 5 kana rows); 2. Ichidan / Group 2 (一段動詞, ru-verbs ending in an -iru or -eru sound where final る drops cleanly); 3. Irregular / Group 3 (する and 来る / くる). Verbs ending in -aru, -uru, or -oru (except する/来る) are always Godan. While most -iru/-eru verbs are Ichidan (食べる taberu, 見る miru), common Godan verbs with -iru/-eru sounds—such as 帰る (kaeru — return), 走る (hashiru — run), 入る (hairu — enter), 知る (shiru — know), 切る (kiru — cut), and 要る (iru — need)—conjugate as Godan (帰らない, 走って).

How do you connect two or more i-adjectives, na-adjectives, or nouns in a single sentence using their Te-forms?

For i-adjectives, replace the final い with くて (安くておいしい — cheap and delicious; いい becomes よくて). For na-adjectives and nouns, attach で to the stem/noun (静かで便利な町 — a quiet and convenient town; 日本人で大学生です).

Compare the three JLPT N4 auxiliary verbs attached to the Te-form: ～てみる, ～てしまう, and ～ておく.

1. Verb-て + みる: To try doing something to see how it is (この靴を履いてみてもいいですか). 2. Verb-て + しまう (casual: ～ちゃう / ～じゃう): Either complete/total finishing of an action (全部食べてしまった) or an unintended action with regret (パスポートを忘れてしまいました). 3. Verb-て + おく (casual: ～とく): To do something in advance as preparation (旅行の前にホテルを予約しておきます) or leave something in a state.

How do the location particles に (ni) and で (de) differ when marking places in Japanese?

に (ni) marks the static location of existence with あります / います or 住んでいます (e.g., 部屋に猫がいます — There is a cat in the room) as well as a point of arrival/destination. で (de) marks the active venue where a dynamic action or event occurs (e.g., 図書館で勉強します — I study at the library; 会議室で会議があります — An event takes place in the meeting room).

What are the core JLPT N5/N4 functions of the Te-form + います (～ている)?

1. Ongoing progressive action with durative verbs (今、ご飯を食べています — I am eating right now); 2. Habitual or repeated action/occupation (毎朝ジョギングをしています; 銀行で働いています); 3. Resulting state following an instantaneous punctual change-of-state verb (結婚しています — is married; 窓が開いています — the window is open; 知っています — knows [Note: negative is 知りません]).

Besides marking a direct object, what special movement usage does the particle を (wo/o) have with intransitive motion verbs in JLPT N5/N4?

With intransitive movement verbs, を marks either: 1. The point of departure/exiting (バスを降りる — get off the bus; 家を出る — leave home; 大学を卒業する — graduate from university), or 2. The space/medium traversed (公園を散歩する — walk through the park; 橋を渡る — cross the bridge; 空を飛ぶ — fly through the sky).

Compare the directional particles に (ni) and へ (e) when used with motion verbs like 行く (iku), 来る (kuru), and 帰る (kaeru).

に (ni) emphasizes the specific final destination or point of contact/arrival (東京に着く requires に, never へ). へ (e, written with hiragana へ) emphasizes the general direction or heading toward which one sets out (東へ進む — head toward the east), and unlike に, へ can combine directly with の (東京への出張 — a business trip to Tokyo).

Why do verbs like 見える (mieru) and 聞こえる (kikoeru) differ from the regular potential forms 見られる (mirareru) and 聞ける (kikeru)?

見える ('to be visible') and 聞こえる ('to be audible') are spontaneous intransitive verbs describing sights or sounds naturally reaching the senses without effort (窓から富士山が見える — Mt. Fuji can be seen from the window). 見られる and 聞ける express active opportunity or capability created by conditions (この映画館でその映画が見られる — You can watch that movie at this theater).

Distinguish ～たい (tai) vs ～たがる (tagaru) when expressing desires in JLPT N5/N4.

Verb masu-stem + たい (conjugated as an i-adjective: 行きたい, 行きたくない) expresses the first-person speaker's own desire or asks the second-person listener directly in a question. Because Japanese grammar restricts directly asserting a third person's private internal feelings, third-person desires use ～たがる / ～たがっている (verb showing outward signs of wanting: 子供が新しいおもちゃを欲しがっている / 行きたがっている) or ～たいと言っている.

How do you express past experience ('I have done X before') vs listing multiple sample actions ('do things like X and Y') using the Ta-form in JLPT N5?

1. Past experience: Verb Ta-form + ことがあります (富士山に登ったことがあります — I have climbed Mt. Fuji before; Note: Present dictionary form + ことがあります means 'sometimes happens'). 2. Non-exhaustive action listing: Verb-たり + Verb-たり + します (休日は本を読んだり、映画を見たりします — On holidays I do things like read books and watch movies).

How do you form the Negative Nai-form (ない形) of Godan (Group 1), Ichidan (Group 2), and Irregular verbs, including the two special N5 exceptions?

For Godan verbs, shift the final '-u' kana to the '-a' row and add ない (書く -> 書かない, 読む -> 読まない), EXCEPT verbs ending in hiragana う shift to わ instead of あ (買う -> 買わない, 会う -> 会わない), and the existence verb ある becomes ない (never あらない). For Ichidan, replace る with ない (食べる -> 食べない). For Irregular: する -> しない, 来る (kuru) -> 来ない (konai).

Summarize the four euphonic (音便, onbin) Te-form (て形) conjugation rules for Godan (Group 1) verbs, including the 行く exception.

1. Verbs ending in う, つ, る → って (買う → 買って, 待つ → 待って, 取る → 取って); 2. Verbs ending in む, ぶ, ぬ → んで (読む [yomu] → 読んで [yonde], 飲む [nomu] → 飲んで [nonde], 遊ぶ → 遊んで, 死ぬ → 死んで); 3. Verbs ending in く → いて (書く → 書いて) and ぐ → いで (泳ぐ → 泳いで), with the exception 行く (iku) → 行って (itte); 4. Verbs ending in す → して (話す → 話して).

Distinguish the four JLPT N4 expressions of appearance/hearsay: そうだ (manner/appearance), そうだ (hearsay), ようだ (sensory judgment), and らしい (evidential conjecture).

1. Conjectural appearance (～そうだ): attaches to the verb masu-stem or adjective stem without い/だ (雨が降りそうだ, おいしそうだ, 静かそうだ; exceptions: いい → よさそうだ, ない → なさそうだ) to mean 'looks like / appears about to'. 2. Hearsay (～そうだ): attaches to the plain form (retaining だ after nouns/na-adjectives: 明日雨が降るそうだ, 静かだそうだ) to mean 'I heard that...'. 3. ～ようだ (or ～みたいだ; Noun + の + ようだ, Na-adj + な + ようだ): speaker's inference from sensory/contextual evidence. 4. ～らしい: conjecture grounded in external information or typicality.

What are the special irregular readings for days of the month (1st through 10th, 14th, 20th, 24th) tested heavily on JLPT N5?

1st: ついたち (一日); 2nd: ふつか (二日); 3rd: みっか (三日); 4th: よっか (四日); 5th: いつか (五日); 6th: むいか (六日); 7th: なのか (七日); 8th: ようか (八日); 9th: ここのか (九日); 10th: とおか (十日); 14th: じゅうよっか (十四日); 20th: はつか (二十日); 24th: にじゅうよっか (二十四日).

Compare the two JLPT N5/N4 causal conjunctions から (kara) and ので (node).

Both connect a reason/cause clause to a result ('because...'). から emphasizes the speaker's subjective reason or judgment and can freely precede commands, requests, or volitional invitations (危ないから、触らないでください). ので (attaching as なので [na node] after plain nouns and na-adjectives: 静かなので, 日曜日なので) presents an objective, polite cause-and-effect relationship and is preferred for courteous explanations or apologies (電車が遅れたので、遅刻しました).

In JLPT N5/N4, what is the grammatical difference between the topic marker は (wa) and the subject marker が (ga)?

は (wa) marks the overarching discourse topic ('as for X...'), known information, or a contrast between two items. が (ga) identifies the specific grammatical subject of an action/state, introduces new or unknown information, follows question words as subjects (誰が来ますか — Who is coming?), and marks objects of ability/desire/liking (日本語がわかる, 寿司が好きだ).

What is the difference between までに (made ni) and まで (made) in JLPT N4 time expressions?

まで ('until/up to') marks the continuous endpoint of a durative action or state (5時まで働きます — I work continuously until 5:00). までに ('by [a deadline]') marks the deadline by which a single one-off punctual action must be completed (金曜日までにレポートを出してください — Please submit the report by Friday).

In Japanese comparative structures (A は B より ... / A と B とどちらが ...), how do より (yori) and のほうが (no hō ga) function?

より marks the standard of comparison ('than B'), while のほうが marks the side that has more of the quality ('A is more...'): 東京は大阪より大きいです (Tokyo is bigger than Osaka) or 大阪より東京のほうが大きいです. When comparing two options in a question, always use どちら (or どっち) regardless of whether the items are people, places, or things (コーヒーと紅茶とどちらが好きですか).

In JLPT N4, contrast how Transitive (他動詞, tadōshi) and Intransitive (自動詞, jidōshi) verbs pair with ～ている vs ～てある (e.g., 開ける vs 開く).

Intransitive Verb + ている describes an observed resulting state without implying an agent (窓が開いています — The window is open). Transitive Verb + てある emphasizes that someone intentionally performed the action in advance as preparation; the underlying object is commonly marked with が/は when describing the state of the item (窓が開けてあります — The window has been opened on purpose), or with を when foregrounding preparatory completion (ホテルを予約してあります).

How do you express 'do not need to do X' (lack of obligation) in JLPT N5/N4?

Take the Nai-form, drop the final い, and add くてもいいです (Verb-なくてもいいです, e.g., 靴を脱がなくてもいいです — You don't have to take off your shoes; 明日は来なくてもいいです — You don't need to come tomorrow).

Japanese JLPT N5 & N4: Core Kanji Readings, Essential Particles & Verb Conjugations

On'yomi vs Kun'yomi, particles (は, が, を, に, で, へ, から, まで, より), Godan vs Ichidan verbs, and Te-form, Nai-form, Ta-form, Potential & Volitional conjugations

Level: basic
Languages: en → en
Cards: 32
Markdown: Japanese JLPT N5 & N4: Core Kanji Readings, Essential Particles & Verb Conjugations (.md)

Flashcards (32)

#	Front (Term / Question)	Back (Definition / Answer)
1	Why must the present dictionary form (ル形) rather than the past Ta-form precede 前に (mae ni — 'before doing X'), whereas the Ta-form must precede 後で (ato de — 'after doing X')?	Japanese subordinate tense is relative to the main action rather than absolute: before an action occurs, it is still incomplete, so 前に ALWAYS takes the non-past dictionary form even if the whole sentence is in the past (昨日、寝る前に本を読みました — Yesterday, before going to bed, I read a book). Conversely, 後で requires the completed Ta-form (仕事が終わった後で、飲みに行きましょう).
2	How do i-adjectives (い形容詞) and na-adjectives (な形容詞) conjugate into present negative, past affirmative, and past negative in plain form?	For i-adjectives (e.g., 高い): drop final い -> 高くない (present negative), 高かった (past affirmative), 高くなかった (past negative), with the irregular いい (good) using the stem よ- (よくない, よかった, よくなかった). For na-adjectives (e.g., 静か[だ]): conjugate like nouns with だ -> 静かじゃない / 静かではない (present negative), 静かだった (past affirmative), 静かじゃなかった (past negative).
3	Distinguish the two existence verbs あります (arimasu / ある) and います (imasu / いる) in JLPT N5.	います (いる) is used for animate, living beings capable of autonomous movement (people, animals, insects: 犬がいます). あります (ある) is used for inanimate objects, plants/trees, abstract concepts, and scheduled events (本があります, 桜の木があります, 明日テストがあります).
4	How do ～すぎる (sugiru), ～やすい (yasui), and ～にくい (nikui) attach to verbs and adjectives in JLPT N4?	All three attach to the Verb Masu-stem (連用形): 食べすぎる (eat too much), わかりやすい (easy to understand), 歩きにくい (hard to walk on). For adjectives attaching to ～すぎる, drop the final い of i-adjectives or the な of na-adjectives (高すぎる — too expensive; 静かすぎる — too quiet; Note: いい becomes よすぎる).
5	In Japanese Kanji, what is the difference between On'yomi (音読み) and Kun'yomi (訓読み), and when is each typically used?	On'yomi (音読み) is the Sino-Japanese reading adapted from historical Chinese pronunciation, commonly used in multi-kanji compound words (熟語, jukugo) such as 水道 (suidō) or 山脈 (sanmyaku), as well as some standalone words (e.g., 本 hon, 駅 eki). Kun'yomi (訓読み) is the native Japanese reading typically used for standalone kanji or kanji with hiragana okurigana (e.g., 水 mizu, 山 yama, 食べる taberu), plus certain native compounds (e.g., 手紙 tegami, 入口 iriguchi).
6	How do you form and use the Potential Form (可能形, kanōkei) of verbs in JLPT N4, and what particle shift typically occurs?	Godan verbs shift the final '-u' kana to the '-e' row + る (書く -> 書ける, 話す -> 話せる, 読む -> 読める); Ichidan verbs replace る with られる (食べる -> 食べられる, often shortened to 食べれる in casual speech, called ら抜き言葉); Irregular: する -> できる, 来る (kuru) -> 来られる (korareru). The direct object marker を typically shifts to が (漢字が読めます).
7	Compare the three permission/prohibition/obligation patterns using the Te-form: ～てもいいです, ～てはいけません, and ～なければなりません.	1. Verb-て + もいいです grants or asks permission ('You may do X / Is it okay if I do X?'); 2. Verb-て + はいけません expresses prohibition ('You must not do X'); 3. Verb-ない stem + なければなりません (or ～ないといけません / ～なくてはいけません) expresses obligation ('You must do X' — literally 'If you do not do X, it won't do').
8	What are the phonetic changes that occur with the counter ～つ (hitotsu, futatsu...) vs Sino-Japanese counters like ～本 (-hon, for long cylindrical objects) and ～匹 (-hiki, for small animals)?	Native counters (ひとつ, ふたつ, みっつ, よっつ, いつつ, むっつ, ななつ, やっつ, ここのつ, とお) count general objects up to 10 with question word いくつ. Sino-Japanese counters beginning with h- (～本 -hon, ～匹 -hiki, ～杯 -hai) undergo rendaku/gemination: 1 (いっぽん / いっぴき), 3 (さんぼん / さんびき), 6 (ろっぽん / ろっぴき), 8 (はっぽん / はっぴき), 10 (じゅっぽん [or じっぽん] / じゅっぴき [or じっぴき]), and question words 何本 (なんぼん) / 何匹 (なんびき).
9	How do you conjugate verbs into the Volitional Form (意向形, ikōkei — casual 'let's...'), and what are its JLPT N4 grammar uses?	Godan verbs shift the final '-u' kana to the '-o' row + う (行く -> 行こう, 話す -> 話そう); Ichidan verbs replace る with よう (食べる -> 食べよう); Irregular: する -> しよう, 来る (kuru) -> 来よう (koyō). Beyond casual 'let's' (= ましょう), Volitional + と思っています expresses an ongoing intention/plan ('I am thinking of doing X'), and Volitional + とする means 'to try to / be about to do X'.
10	How do you form the Imperative (命令形, meireikei) and Prohibitive (禁止形, kinshikei) forms in JLPT N4?	For Imperative (command): Godan shifts the final '-u' kana to the '-e' row (書く -> 書け, 走る -> 走れ); Ichidan replaces る with ろ (食べる -> 食べろ, 見る -> 見ろ); Irregular: する -> しろ (or せよ), 来る (kuru) -> 来い (koi). For Prohibitive ('Don't do X!'): attach な directly to the plain dictionary form of ANY verb (書くな, 食べるな, するな, 来るな).
11	In JLPT N4, compare the four conditional forms: ～と (to), ～ば (ba), ～たら (tara), and ～なら (nara).	1. ～と: Inevitable natural consequence, machine operation, or habitual 'whenever' (cannot be followed by volition, requests, or commands!). 2. ～ば (e-row + ば): General hypothetical or proverb condition focusing on the condition needed for a good result. 3. ～たら (Ta-form + ら): Most versatile ('if/when'), emphasizes completion of condition first and freely allows commands/requests in the main clause. 4. ～なら: Contextual/topic-based 'if it is the case that X (as you just mentioned)...'.
12	In JLPT N4, how do 間 (aida) and 間に (aida ni) differ in temporal clauses?	A の間, B indicates that action/state B continues throughout the entire duration of state A (夏休みの間、毎日泳ぎました — During the entire summer vacation, I swam every day). A の間に, B indicates that a punctual event B occurs at some point within the time span while state A holds (お母さんが昼寝をしている間に、出かけました — While Mom was taking a nap, I went out).
13	What are the three main classifications of Japanese verbs, and how do you distinguish Ichidan (Group 2) verbs from Godan (Group 1) verbs that end in -iru or -eru?	1. Godan / Group 1 (五段動詞, u-verbs whose stem vowel shifts across all 5 kana rows); 2. Ichidan / Group 2 (一段動詞, ru-verbs ending in an -iru or -eru sound where final る drops cleanly); 3. Irregular / Group 3 (する and 来る / くる). Verbs ending in -aru, -uru, or -oru (except する/来る) are always Godan. While most -iru/-eru verbs are Ichidan (食べる taberu, 見る miru), common Godan verbs with -iru/-eru sounds—such as 帰る (kaeru — return), 走る (hashiru — run), 入る (hairu — enter), 知る (shiru — know), 切る (kiru — cut), and 要る (iru — need)—conjugate as Godan (帰らない, 走って).
14	How do you connect two or more i-adjectives, na-adjectives, or nouns in a single sentence using their Te-forms?	For i-adjectives, replace the final い with くて (安くておいしい — cheap and delicious; いい becomes よくて). For na-adjectives and nouns, attach で to the stem/noun (静かで便利な町 — a quiet and convenient town; 日本人で大学生です).
15	Compare the three JLPT N4 auxiliary verbs attached to the Te-form: ～てみる, ～てしまう, and ～ておく.	1. Verb-て + みる: To try doing something to see how it is (この靴を履いてみてもいいですか). 2. Verb-て + しまう (casual: ～ちゃう / ～じゃう): Either complete/total finishing of an action (全部食べてしまった) or an unintended action with regret (パスポートを忘れてしまいました). 3. Verb-て + おく (casual: ～とく): To do something in advance as preparation (旅行の前にホテルを予約しておきます) or leave something in a state.
16	How do the location particles に (ni) and で (de) differ when marking places in Japanese?	に (ni) marks the static location of existence with あります / います or 住んでいます (e.g., 部屋に猫がいます — There is a cat in the room) as well as a point of arrival/destination. で (de) marks the active venue where a dynamic action or event occurs (e.g., 図書館で勉強します — I study at the library; 会議室で会議があります — An event takes place in the meeting room).
17	What are the core JLPT N5/N4 functions of the Te-form + います (～ている)?	1. Ongoing progressive action with durative verbs (今、ご飯を食べています — I am eating right now); 2. Habitual or repeated action/occupation (毎朝ジョギングをしています; 銀行で働いています); 3. Resulting state following an instantaneous punctual change-of-state verb (結婚しています — is married; 窓が開いています — the window is open; 知っています — knows [Note: negative is 知りません]).
18	Besides marking a direct object, what special movement usage does the particle を (wo/o) have with intransitive motion verbs in JLPT N5/N4?	With intransitive movement verbs, を marks either: 1. The point of departure/exiting (バスを降りる — get off the bus; 家を出る — leave home; 大学を卒業する — graduate from university), or 2. The space/medium traversed (公園を散歩する — walk through the park; 橋を渡る — cross the bridge; 空を飛ぶ — fly through the sky).
19	Compare the directional particles に (ni) and へ (e) when used with motion verbs like 行く (iku), 来る (kuru), and 帰る (kaeru).	に (ni) emphasizes the specific final destination or point of contact/arrival (東京に着く requires に, never へ). へ (e, written with hiragana へ) emphasizes the general direction or heading toward which one sets out (東へ進む — head toward the east), and unlike に, へ can combine directly with の (東京への出張 — a business trip to Tokyo).
20	Why do verbs like 見える (mieru) and 聞こえる (kikoeru) differ from the regular potential forms 見られる (mirareru) and 聞ける (kikeru)?	見える ('to be visible') and 聞こえる ('to be audible') are spontaneous intransitive verbs describing sights or sounds naturally reaching the senses without effort (窓から富士山が見える — Mt. Fuji can be seen from the window). 見られる and 聞ける express active opportunity or capability created by conditions (この映画館でその映画が見られる — You can watch that movie at this theater).
21	Distinguish ～たい (tai) vs ～たがる (tagaru) when expressing desires in JLPT N5/N4.	Verb masu-stem + たい (conjugated as an i-adjective: 行きたい, 行きたくない) expresses the first-person speaker's own desire or asks the second-person listener directly in a question. Because Japanese grammar restricts directly asserting a third person's private internal feelings, third-person desires use ～たがる / ～たがっている (verb showing outward signs of wanting: 子供が新しいおもちゃを欲しがっている / 行きたがっている) or ～たいと言っている.
22	How do you express past experience ('I have done X before') vs listing multiple sample actions ('do things like X and Y') using the Ta-form in JLPT N5?	1. Past experience: Verb Ta-form + ことがあります (富士山に登ったことがあります — I have climbed Mt. Fuji before; Note: Present dictionary form + ことがあります means 'sometimes happens'). 2. Non-exhaustive action listing: Verb-たり + Verb-たり + します (休日は本を読んだり、映画を見たりします — On holidays I do things like read books and watch movies).
23	How do you form the Negative Nai-form (ない形) of Godan (Group 1), Ichidan (Group 2), and Irregular verbs, including the two special N5 exceptions?	For Godan verbs, shift the final '-u' kana to the '-a' row and add ない (書く -> 書かない, 読む -> 読まない), EXCEPT verbs ending in hiragana う shift to わ instead of あ (買う -> 買わない, 会う -> 会わない), and the existence verb ある becomes ない (never あらない). For Ichidan, replace る with ない (食べる -> 食べない). For Irregular: する -> しない, 来る (kuru) -> 来ない (konai).
24	Summarize the four euphonic (音便, onbin) Te-form (て形) conjugation rules for Godan (Group 1) verbs, including the 行く exception.	1. Verbs ending in う, つ, る → って (買う → 買って, 待つ → 待って, 取る → 取って); 2. Verbs ending in む, ぶ, ぬ → んで (読む [yomu] → 読んで [yonde], 飲む [nomu] → 飲んで [nonde], 遊ぶ → 遊んで, 死ぬ → 死んで); 3. Verbs ending in く → いて (書く → 書いて) and ぐ → いで (泳ぐ → 泳いで), with the exception 行く (iku) → 行って (itte); 4. Verbs ending in す → して (話す → 話して).
25	Distinguish the four JLPT N4 expressions of appearance/hearsay: そうだ (manner/appearance), そうだ (hearsay), ようだ (sensory judgment), and らしい (evidential conjecture).	1. Conjectural appearance (～そうだ): attaches to the verb masu-stem or adjective stem without い/だ (雨が降りそうだ, おいしそうだ, 静かそうだ; exceptions: いい → よさそうだ, ない → なさそうだ) to mean 'looks like / appears about to'. 2. Hearsay (～そうだ): attaches to the plain form (retaining だ after nouns/na-adjectives: 明日雨が降るそうだ, 静かだそうだ) to mean 'I heard that...'. 3. ～ようだ (or ～みたいだ; Noun + の + ようだ, Na-adj + な + ようだ): speaker's inference from sensory/contextual evidence. 4. ～らしい: conjecture grounded in external information or typicality.
26	What are the special irregular readings for days of the month (1st through 10th, 14th, 20th, 24th) tested heavily on JLPT N5?	1st: ついたち (一日); 2nd: ふつか (二日); 3rd: みっか (三日); 4th: よっか (四日); 5th: いつか (五日); 6th: むいか (六日); 7th: なのか (七日); 8th: ようか (八日); 9th: ここのか (九日); 10th: とおか (十日); 14th: じゅうよっか (十四日); 20th: はつか (二十日); 24th: にじゅうよっか (二十四日).
27	Compare the two JLPT N5/N4 causal conjunctions から (kara) and ので (node).	Both connect a reason/cause clause to a result ('because...'). から emphasizes the speaker's subjective reason or judgment and can freely precede commands, requests, or volitional invitations (危ないから、触らないでください). ので (attaching as なので [na node] after plain nouns and na-adjectives: 静かなので, 日曜日なので) presents an objective, polite cause-and-effect relationship and is preferred for courteous explanations or apologies (電車が遅れたので、遅刻しました).
28	In JLPT N5/N4, what is the grammatical difference between the topic marker は (wa) and the subject marker が (ga)?	は (wa) marks the overarching discourse topic ('as for X...'), known information, or a contrast between two items. が (ga) identifies the specific grammatical subject of an action/state, introduces new or unknown information, follows question words as subjects (誰が来ますか — Who is coming?), and marks objects of ability/desire/liking (日本語がわかる, 寿司が好きだ).
29	What is the difference between までに (made ni) and まで (made) in JLPT N4 time expressions?	まで ('until/up to') marks the continuous endpoint of a durative action or state (5時まで働きます — I work continuously until 5:00). までに ('by [a deadline]') marks the deadline by which a single one-off punctual action must be completed (金曜日までにレポートを出してください — Please submit the report by Friday).
30	In Japanese comparative structures (A は B より ... / A と B とどちらが ...), how do より (yori) and のほうが (no hō ga) function?	より marks the standard of comparison ('than B'), while のほうが marks the side that has more of the quality ('A is more...'): 東京は大阪より大きいです (Tokyo is bigger than Osaka) or 大阪より東京のほうが大きいです. When comparing two options in a question, always use どちら (or どっち) regardless of whether the items are people, places, or things (コーヒーと紅茶とどちらが好きですか).
31	In JLPT N4, contrast how Transitive (他動詞, tadōshi) and Intransitive (自動詞, jidōshi) verbs pair with ～ている vs ～てある (e.g., 開ける vs 開く).	Intransitive Verb + ている describes an observed resulting state without implying an agent (窓が開いています — The window is open). Transitive Verb + てある emphasizes that someone intentionally performed the action in advance as preparation; the underlying object is commonly marked with が/は when describing the state of the item (窓が開けてあります — The window has been opened on purpose), or with を when foregrounding preparatory completion (ホテルを予約してあります).
32	How do you express 'do not need to do X' (lack of obligation) in JLPT N5/N4?	Take the Nai-form, drop the final い, and add くてもいいです (Verb-なくてもいいです, e.g., 靴を脱がなくてもいいです — You don't have to take off your shoes; 明日は来なくてもいいです — You don't need to come tomorrow).