What is the 'Seventh-Chord Resolution Principle' for non-dominant diatonic seventh chords (such as ii7, IVM7, vi7)?

In a circle-of-fifths progression (e.g., vi7 – ii7 – V7 – I), every chordal 7th is prepared as a common tone (or step) from the previous chord and resolves DOWN BY STEP into the 3rd of the next chord (whose root lies a 5th below / 4th above). In interlocking chains of 7th chords, alternating Complete and Incomplete root-position 7th chords (or alternating 6/5 and 4/2 inversions) allows every 7th to resolve down smoothly by step.

What are the two ironclad Tendency-Tone Resolution Rules when resolving ANY Dominant Seventh (V7) or Leading-Tone (vii°7 / viiø7) chord to Tonic?

1. The Chordal Seventh (scale degree ^4, Fa) MUST RESOLVE DOWN BY STEP to the third of the tonic chord (scale degree ^3, Mi). Failing to resolve a chordal 7th down is a major part-writing error! 2. The Leading Tone (scale degree ^7, Ti—which is the 3rd of V7 or root of vii°7) MUST RESOLVE UP BY HALF STEP to the tonic (^1, Do) whenever it is in an outer voice (Soprano or Bass); if in an inner voice (Alto/Tenor) in V7–I, it may optionally 'frustrate' down a 3rd to ^5 to produce a complete I triad.

How may a Root-Position Dominant Seventh Chord (V7) be voiced in four-part SATB writing (Complete vs. Incomplete V7), and can an Inverted V7 (V6/5, V4/3, V4/2) ever be incomplete?

• Root-Position V7: Can be COMPLETE (all 4 chord members present: Root, 3rd, 5th, 7th) OR INCOMPLETE by OMITTING THE FIFTH and DOUBLING THE ROOT (Root, Root, 3rd, 7th). Remember: When V7 (complete) resolves to root-position I, one of the two chords will be incomplete (complete V7 -> incomplete I [3 roots + 3rd, no 5th], OR incomplete V7 -> complete I) if you strictly resolve both ^7->^1 and ^4->^3! • Inverted Seventh Chords (V6/5, V4/3, V4/2): Must ALWAYS BE COMPLETE (all 4 tones present; never omit the 5th or double any note).

Compare the four standard types of Second-Inversion (6/4) Triads: Cadential 6/4, Passing 6/4, Pedal (Neighbor) 6/4, and Arpeggiated (Bass) 6/4.

Because the interval of a 4th above the bass is dissonant in common-practice harmony, 6/4 chords are unstable and occur in 4 controlled contexts: 1. Cadential 6/4 (C6/4 -> V5/3): Occurs on a STRONG beat over the Dominant (^5) bass note; the 6th (^3) and 4th (^1) above the bass resolve down by step to the 5th (^2) and 3rd (^7) of V. 2. Passing 6/4: Occurs on a WEAK beat connecting a root-position chord and its first inversion via a stepwise bass line (e.g., I – V6/4 – I6 with bass ^1–^2–^3, or IV6 – I6/4 – IV). 3. Pedal (Neighbor/Auxiliary) 6/4: Occurs on a WEAK beat over a stationary bass note while upper voices move by neighbor step (e.g., I – IV6/4 – I over ^1, or V – I6/4 – V over ^5). 4. Arpeggiated 6/4: Bass simply arpeggiates the triad (1–3–5) beneath static upper voices.

In common-practice counterpoint and harmony, which intervals are Perfect Consonances, Imperfect Consonances, and Dissonances—and when is the Perfect 4th dissonant?

• Perfect Consonances: Perfect Unison (P1), Perfect Octave (P8), and Perfect 5th (P5). • Imperfect Consonances: Major and Minor 3rds (M3, m3) and Major and Minor 6ths (M6, m6). • Dissonances: All 2nds (M2, m2), all 7ths (M7, m7), and all Augmented and Diminished intervals (including the Tritone A4/d5). • The Special Case of the Perfect 4th (P4): Dissonant whenever it is formed ABOVE THE BASS NOTE (as in a 6/4 chord or 4–3 suspension, requiring resolution down to a 3rd), but consonant when occurring between two upper voices (as in a first-inversion 6/3 triad).

What is a Picardy Third (Tierce de Picardi)?

Raising the third of the final tonic triad by a chromatic half step at the end of a composition or movement in a MINOR key so that it concludes on a bright, resonant Major Tonic triad (I instead of i), a device ubiquitous in Renaissance and Baroque music (e.g., J.S. Bach).

Distinguish between Simple Intervals and Compound Intervals, and state how compound intervals (9ths, 10ths, 11ths, 12ths, 13ths) reduce to simple equivalents.

• Simple Intervals: Intervals of an octave (P8) or smaller. • Compound Intervals: Intervals larger than an octave. Subtract 7 from any compound interval number to find its simple equivalent (which shares the exact same quality): • 9th = Octave + 2nd (9 - 7 = 2) • 10th = Octave + 3rd (10 - 7 = 3) • 11th = Octave + 4th (11 - 7 = 4) • 12th = Octave + 5th (12 - 7 = 5) • 13th = Octave + 6th (13 - 7 = 6).

List the exact number of Semitones (Half Steps) for every interval from Perfect Unison (0) to Perfect Octave (12).

• 0 semitones: Perfect Unison (P1) • 1 semitone: Minor 2nd (m2) • 2 semitones: Major 2nd (M2) • 3 semitones: Minor 3rd (m3) / Augmented 2nd (A2) • 4 semitones: Major 3rd (M3) • 5 semitones: Perfect 4th (P4) • 6 semitones: Tritone — Augmented 4th (A4) or Diminished 5th (d5) • 7 semitones: Perfect 5th (P5) • 8 semitones: Minor 6th (m6) / Augmented 5th (A5) • 9 semitones: Major 6th (M6) / Diminished 7th (d7) • 10 semitones: Minor 7th (m7) • 11 semitones: Major 7th (M7) • 12 semitones: Perfect Octave (P8).

How are Musical Intervals classified into 'Perfect' versus 'Major/Minor' families, and how do Augmented and Diminished alterations work for each?

• Perfect Family: Unisons (1), Fourths (4), Fifths (5), and Octaves (8). Never called major or minor! Expanding a Perfect interval by 1 chromatic half step (keeping letter names) makes it Augmented (A); shrinking a Perfect interval by 1 half step makes it Diminished (d). • Major/Minor Family: Seconds (2), Thirds (3), Sixths (6), and Sevenths (7). Expanding a Major (M) interval by 1 half step makes it Augmented (A); shrinking a Major interval by 1 half step makes it Minor (m); shrinking a Minor interval by 1 half step makes it Diminished (d).

In Baroque Figured Bass notation, what do standalone accidentals (#, b, natural), slashes through numbers (6/), and plus signs (4+) mean?

1. An accidental standing ALONE with no number next to it ALWAYS applies to the THIRD above the bass note (most commonly '#' under the dominant bass note in a minor key to raise the leading tone ^7 in a V chord!). 2. An accidental placed before/after a number (e.g., #6 or b7) alters that specific interval above the bass. 3. A slash through a number (e.g., 6/ or 5/) or a '+' sign after a number (e.g., 4+ or 6+) means to RAISE that interval above the bass by one chromatic half step.

State the 'Rule of 9' for Inverting any simple interval (both numerical size and quality).

When you invert a simple interval (by moving the bottom note up an octave or the top note down an octave): 1. The old size and the new size ALWAYS add up to 9: 1 8, 2 7, 3 6, 4 5. 2. The quality flips symmetrically: Perfect Perfect, Major Minor, Augmented Diminished (e.g., a Major 3rd [M3] inverts to a Minor 6th [m6]; an Augmented 4th [A4] inverts to a Diminished 5th [d5]).

What are 'sus4' and 'sus2' chords in lead-sheet notation, and how do they relate to classical suspensions?

In a 'sus4' (e.g., Gsus4 = G–C–D) or 'sus2' (Gsus2 = G–A–D) chord, the chordal 3rd is replaced by a Perfect 4th or Major 2nd above the root. In classical harmony, a 4–3 suspension prepares the 4th as a consonance in the preceding chord, holds/ties it into the new chord on a strong beat, and resolves it down by step to the 3rd (e.g., Gsus4 -> G).

List the Roman Numeral and quality of diatonic triads in Natural Minor versus Harmonic Minor.

• Natural Minor (subtonic b^7): i (minor), ii° (diminished), III (Major), iv (minor), v (minor), VI (Major), VII (Major — Subtonic triad). • Harmonic Minor (raised leading tone #^7, standard for harmonic function): i (minor), ii° (diminished), III+ (Augmented, rarely used), iv (minor), V (Major — using raised #^7!), VI (Major), vii° (diminished — built on raised #^7).

Compare the construction of the four Triad qualities (Major, Minor, Diminished, Augmented) by stacked 3rds and outer 5th.

Every triad consists of a Root, Third, and Fifth stacked in thirds: 1. Major Triad (M): Major 3rd on bottom + Minor 3rd on top (outer interval = Perfect 5th; e.g., C–E–G). 2. Minor Triad (m): Minor 3rd on bottom + Major 3rd on top (outer interval = Perfect 5th; e.g., C–Eb–G). 3. Diminished Triad (°): Minor 3rd on bottom + Minor 3rd on top (outer interval = Diminished 5th; e.g., C–Eb–Gb). 4. Augmented Triad (+): Major 3rd on bottom + Major 3rd on top (outer interval = Augmented 5th; e.g., C–E–G#).

What determines the Inversion of any Triad or Seventh Chord?

Inversion is determined EXCLUSIVELY by which chord member is in the BASS (the lowest sounding pitch)—the spacing, order, or doubling of the upper voices has ZERO effect on the chord's inversion!

How do you aurally distinguish Major, Minor, Diminished, and Augmented Triads—as well as MM7, Mm7, mm7, ø7, and °7 chords—in AP Music Theory harmonic dictation?

• Triads: Major (bright, stable, 5:4 overtone match); Minor (dark/somber, stable); Diminished (tense, contracted, inward-pulling tritone vii° -> I); Augmented (dreamy, whole-tone, outward-expanding 5th). • Seventh Chords: Mm7 (classic bluesy/dominant tension demanding resolution); MM7 (lush, jazzy, poignant Major 7th half step below octave); mm7 (mellow, smooth Dorian/ii7 sound); ø7 (wistful 'Tristan chord' half-diminished tension); °7 (symmetrical 'silent-movie villain on train tracks' extreme instability).

What are the standard SATB vocal ranges for Soprano, Alto, Tenor, and Bass in AP Music Theory part-writing?

• Soprano: C4 (Middle C) to G5 (or A5) • Alto: G3 to D5 • Tenor: C3 to G4 (or A4) • Bass: E2 (or F2) to C4 (Middle C) Staying comfortably within the middle of each range avoids strained vocal tessitura and prevents voice crossing.

How do you find the Root of an inverted Triad or Seventh Chord quickly when analyzing a musical score?

Reduce all notes of the chord to a single pitch-class inventory and stack them in ascending thirds (skipping every other letter name in the musical alphabet: A–C–E–G–B–D–F–A). Alternatively, look at the visual intervals: in a 6/3 or 6/4 triad, the TOP note of the interval of a 4th IS the root! In an inverted seventh chord (6/5, 4/3, or 4/2), the two adjacent notes forming a Major/minor 2nd (a step) are always the 7th (bottom of the 2nd) and the Root (TOP of the 2nd)!

State the Bass Note, Interval above the Bass, Full Figured Bass, and Abbreviated Figured Bass for Root Position, First Inversion, and Second Inversion Triads.

• Root Position Triad: Root is in the bass; intervals above bass = 5th and 3rd; full figure = 5/3; abbreviated figure = (none / blank, e.g., I, V). • First Inversion Triad: Third of the chord is in the bass; intervals above bass = 6th and 3rd; full figure = 6/3; abbreviated figure = 6 (e.g., I6, V6). • Second Inversion Triad: Fifth of the chord is in the bass; intervals above bass = 6th and 4th; full figure = 6/4; abbreviated figure = 6/4 (e.g., I6/4, V6/4).

In four-part SATB writing, explain the difference between Voice Crossing and Voice Overlap, and why both are generally prohibited.

• Voice Crossing: A lower voice sings a pitch HIGHER than an adjacent upper voice (e.g., Alto sings higher than Soprano, or Bass higher than Tenor) on the same beat. • Voice Overlap: Moving from one chord to the next, a voice leaps past the pitch just sung by an adjacent voice on the IMMEDIATELY PRECEDING beat (e.g., Soprano sings E4 on beat 1, and Alto leaps up to F4 on beat 2). Both obscure the independent melodic clarity of the four voices.

What is the universal Doubling Rule for all Second-Inversion (6/4) Triads?

In ANY Second-Inversion (6/4) triad (Cadential, Passing, or Pedal), you MUST ALWAYS DOUBLE THE BASS NOTE (which is the Fifth of the triad)! In a Cadential 6/4 -> 5/3 progression, the 6th resolves down to the 5th and the 4th resolves down to the 3rd, while the doubled bass note holds steady.

List the Roman Numeral and quality of every diatonic triad built on scale degrees ^1 to ^7 in a Major Key.

• I: Major (Tonic) • ii: minor (Supertonic) • iii: minor (Mediant) • IV: Major (Subdominant) • V: Major (Dominant) • vi: minor (Submediant) • vii°: diminished (Leading-Tone triad) Summary in Major: Major = I, IV, V; minor = ii, iii, vi; diminished = vii°.

Compare Open Spacing (Open Structure) versus Close Spacing (Close Structure) in four-part SATB choral writing.

• Close Structure: The three upper voices (Soprano, Alto, Tenor) are packed as closely together as possible so that NO chord tone could be inserted between Soprano–Alto or Alto–Tenor (total span between Soprano and Tenor is less than an octave). • Open Structure: Chord tones are skipped between Soprano–Alto and Alto–Tenor so that the distance between Soprano and Tenor spans an octave or more. Note: In both spacings, adjacent upper voices (S–A and A–T) may NEVER exceed an octave, whereas Tenor and Bass (T–B) may be up to 2 octaves apart.

Why is the Fully Diminished Seventh Chord (vii°7) symmetrical, and how can a single °7 collection resolve to FOUR different keys?

Because a Fully Diminished 7th chord consists of three stacked minor 3rds (3 + 3 + 3 semitones, dividing the 12-semitone octave into 4 equal parts), only THREE distinct pitch-class °7 chords exist in 12-tone equal temperament! Any of the four notes in a °7 chord can be respelled enharmonically as the Leading Tone (^7) of a minor or major key, allowing immediate enharmonic modulation to 4 keys a minor 3rd apart.

State the Bass Note, Full Figured Bass, and Abbreviated Figured Bass ('7 – 6/5 – 4/3 – 4/2') for Root Position, First, Second, and Third Inversion Seventh Chords.

Phone-number mnemonic '7 – 65 – 43 – 42' (tracing how the Root and 7th move down relative to the bass): • Root Position (Root in bass): Full = 7/5/3 -> Abbreviated = 7 (e.g., V7). • First Inversion (3rd in bass): Full = 6/5/3 -> Abbreviated = 6/5 (e.g., V6/5). • Second Inversion (5th in bass): Full = 6/4/3 -> Abbreviated = 4/3 (e.g., V4/3). • Third Inversion (7th in bass): Full = 6/4/2 -> Abbreviated = 4/2 or 2 (e.g., V4/2).

What do horizontal dashes (5 — 6) or stacked pairs (4 — 3, 7 — 6, 9 — 8) under a single bass note indicate in Figured Bass?

They indicate voice-leading motion in the UPPER voices over a stationary bass note: • '4 – 3' or '7 – 6' or '9 – 8': A dissonant suspension (4th, 7th, or 9th above the bass) resolving downward by step to a consonance (3rd, 6th, or 8ve). • '5 – 6': Movement from a 5/3 triad to a 6/3 triad over the same bass note. • '8 – 7': A passing chordal 7th added to a root-position triad. • '6/4 – 5/3': A Cadential 6/4 resolving to a root-position V chord over the dominant bass.

Trace the exact bass resolution and tonic inversion resulting from resolving V7, V6/5, V4/3, and V4/2.

• V7 (bass = ^5, Sol) -> resolves to root-position I (bass = ^1, Do). • V6/5 (bass = ^7, Ti — the leading tone!) -> bass MUST resolve UP by step to root-position I (bass = ^1, Do). • V4/3 (bass = ^2, Re) -> bass steps either down to I (bass = ^1) or up to I6 (bass = ^3, expanding a 1–2–3 bass line). • V4/2 (bass = ^4, Fa — the chordal 7th!) -> because the chordal 7th is in the bass, the bass MUST resolve DOWN BY STEP to ^3 (Mi), meaning V4/2 ALWAYS resolves to a First-Inversion Tonic triad (I6)!

How does Lead-Sheet / Jazz Pop Chord Notation (e.g., C, Cm, C°, C+, Cmaj7, C7, Cm7, Cm7b5, C°7, C/E) map to Roman Numeral and Figured Bass analysis?

Lead-sheet symbols give the absolute chord root and quality, with any inverted bass note written after a slash ('/'): • Triads: C (Major), Cm or C- (minor), Cdim or C° (diminished), Caug or C+ (augmented). • 7th Chords: Cmaj7 or CM7 (MM7), C7 (Dominant Mm7), Cm7 (mm7), Cm7b5 or Cø7 (half-diminished), Cdim7 or C°7 (fully diminished). • Slash Chords (Inversions): C/E = C Major with E in the bass (First Inversion, 6); C/G = C Major with G in the bass (Second Inversion, 6/4); G7/B = G6/5; G7/D = G4/3; G7/F = G4/2.

Compare the five standard Seventh Chord qualities (MM7, Mm7, mm7, ø7, °7) by their Triad quality + 7th quality.

1. Major Seventh (MM7 / Maj7): Major triad + Major 7th above root (e.g., C–E–G–B). 2. Major-Minor / Dominant Seventh (Mm7 / 7): Major triad + minor 7th above root (e.g., C–E–G–Bb). 3. Minor Seventh (mm7 / m7): minor triad + minor 7th above root (e.g., C–Eb–G–Bb). 4. Half-Diminished Seventh (dm7 / ø7 / m7b5): diminished triad + minor 7th above root (e.g., C–Eb–Gb–Bb). 5. Fully Diminished Seventh (dd7 / °7): diminished triad + diminished 7th above root (stacked entirely of minor 3rds; e.g., C–Eb–Gb–Bbb).

What is the Tritone, how is it spelled as an Augmented 4th vs. a Diminished 5th in a Major key, and how does each resolve in voice leading?

The Tritone spans 3 whole tones (6 semitones), dividing the octave in half. In a Major key, the diatonic tritone occurs naturally between scale degrees ^4 (Fa) and ^7 (Ti): • Spelled as an Augmented 4th (^4 up to ^7, e.g., F to B in C Major): Resolves OUTWARD by step to a 6th (^4->^3 and ^7->^1, i.e., E and C). • Spelled as a Diminished 5th (^7 up to ^4, e.g., B to F in C Major): Resolves INWARD by step to a 3rd (^7->^1 and ^4->^3, i.e., C and E).

What are the standard Doubling Rules for Root-Position Triads and First-Inversion (6) Triads in four-part SATB writing?

• Never double the Leading Tone (^7) or any chromatically altered tendency tone! • Root-Position Triads (5/3): Double the ROOT (the bass note); exception: in the deceptive progression V -> vi (or V7 -> VI in minor), double the THIRD of vi (which is scale degree ^1, Tonic) to avoid parallel 5ths/octaves. • First-Inversion Major/Minor Triads (6): Double the Soprano, Bass, or Root (whichever gives the smoothest stepwise voice leading without doubling ^7). • First-Inversion Diminished Triads (vii°6, ii°6): ALWAYS double the BASS note (the 3rd of the triad, which is the only note not involved in the diminished 5th tritone!).

List the Roman Numeral and quality of all seven diatonic Seventh Chords in a Major Key versus Harmonic Minor.

• In a Major Key: IM7 (Major 7th), ii7 (minor 7th), iii7 (minor 7th), IVM7 (Major 7th), V7 (Dominant Mm7 — the ONLY diatonic Mm7 chord!), vi7 (minor 7th), viiø7 (Half-Diminished 7th). • In Harmonic Minor (using raised #^7 on V and vii°): i(M7) or i7, iiø7 (Half-Diminished 7th!), III+M7, iv7 (minor 7th), V7 (Dominant Mm7), VIM7 (Major 7th), vii°7 (Fully Diminished 7th!).

Intervals, Triads, Seventh Chords, Inversions & Figured Bass Realization

AP Music Theory mastery of simple and compound intervals, interval inversion rules, Consonance vs. Dissonance, the four Triad qualities, the five Seventh Chord qualities, Roman Numeral and Lead-Sheet symbols, Triad and Seventh Chord inversions, and Figured Bass realization.

Level: basic
Languages: en → en
Cards: 32
Markdown: Intervals, Triads, Seventh Chords, Inversions & Figured Bass Realization (.md)

Flashcards (32)

#	Front (Term / Question)	Back (Definition / Answer)
1	What is the 'Seventh-Chord Resolution Principle' for non-dominant diatonic seventh chords (such as ii7, IVM7, vi7)?	In a circle-of-fifths progression (e.g., vi7 – ii7 – V7 – I), every chordal 7th is prepared as a common tone (or step) from the previous chord and resolves DOWN BY STEP into the 3rd of the next chord (whose root lies a 5th below / 4th above). In interlocking chains of 7th chords, alternating Complete and Incomplete root-position 7th chords (or alternating 6/5 and 4/2 inversions) allows every 7th to resolve down smoothly by step.
2	What are the two ironclad Tendency-Tone Resolution Rules when resolving ANY Dominant Seventh (V7) or Leading-Tone (vii°7 / viiø7) chord to Tonic?	1. The Chordal Seventh (scale degree ^4, Fa) MUST RESOLVE DOWN BY STEP to the third of the tonic chord (scale degree ^3, Mi). Failing to resolve a chordal 7th down is a major part-writing error! 2. The Leading Tone (scale degree ^7, Ti—which is the 3rd of V7 or root of vii°7) MUST RESOLVE UP BY HALF STEP to the tonic (^1, Do) whenever it is in an outer voice (Soprano or Bass); if in an inner voice (Alto/Tenor) in V7–I, it may optionally 'frustrate' down a 3rd to ^5 to produce a complete I triad.
3	How may a Root-Position Dominant Seventh Chord (V7) be voiced in four-part SATB writing (Complete vs. Incomplete V7), and can an Inverted V7 (V6/5, V4/3, V4/2) ever be incomplete?	• Root-Position V7: Can be COMPLETE (all 4 chord members present: Root, 3rd, 5th, 7th) OR INCOMPLETE by OMITTING THE FIFTH and DOUBLING THE ROOT (Root, Root, 3rd, 7th). Remember: When V7 (complete) resolves to root-position I, one of the two chords will be incomplete (complete V7 -> incomplete I [3 roots + 3rd, no 5th], OR incomplete V7 -> complete I) if you strictly resolve both ^7->^1 and ^4->^3! • Inverted Seventh Chords (V6/5, V4/3, V4/2): Must ALWAYS BE COMPLETE (all 4 tones present; never omit the 5th or double any note).
4	Compare the four standard types of Second-Inversion (6/4) Triads: Cadential 6/4, Passing 6/4, Pedal (Neighbor) 6/4, and Arpeggiated (Bass) 6/4.	Because the interval of a 4th above the bass is dissonant in common-practice harmony, 6/4 chords are unstable and occur in 4 controlled contexts: 1. Cadential 6/4 (C6/4 -> V5/3): Occurs on a STRONG beat over the Dominant (^5) bass note; the 6th (^3) and 4th (^1) above the bass resolve down by step to the 5th (^2) and 3rd (^7) of V. 2. Passing 6/4: Occurs on a WEAK beat connecting a root-position chord and its first inversion via a stepwise bass line (e.g., I – V6/4 – I6 with bass ^1–^2–^3, or IV6 – I6/4 – IV). 3. Pedal (Neighbor/Auxiliary) 6/4: Occurs on a WEAK beat over a stationary bass note while upper voices move by neighbor step (e.g., I – IV6/4 – I over ^1, or V – I6/4 – V over ^5). 4. Arpeggiated 6/4: Bass simply arpeggiates the triad (1–3–5) beneath static upper voices.
5	In common-practice counterpoint and harmony, which intervals are Perfect Consonances, Imperfect Consonances, and Dissonances—and when is the Perfect 4th dissonant?	• Perfect Consonances: Perfect Unison (P1), Perfect Octave (P8), and Perfect 5th (P5). • Imperfect Consonances: Major and Minor 3rds (M3, m3) and Major and Minor 6ths (M6, m6). • Dissonances: All 2nds (M2, m2), all 7ths (M7, m7), and all Augmented and Diminished intervals (including the Tritone A4/d5). • The Special Case of the Perfect 4th (P4): Dissonant whenever it is formed ABOVE THE BASS NOTE (as in a 6/4 chord or 4–3 suspension, requiring resolution down to a 3rd), but consonant when occurring between two upper voices (as in a first-inversion 6/3 triad).
6	What is a Picardy Third (Tierce de Picardi)?	Raising the third of the final tonic triad by a chromatic half step at the end of a composition or movement in a MINOR key so that it concludes on a bright, resonant Major Tonic triad (I instead of i), a device ubiquitous in Renaissance and Baroque music (e.g., J.S. Bach).
7	Distinguish between Simple Intervals and Compound Intervals, and state how compound intervals (9ths, 10ths, 11ths, 12ths, 13ths) reduce to simple equivalents.	• Simple Intervals: Intervals of an octave (P8) or smaller. • Compound Intervals: Intervals larger than an octave. Subtract 7 from any compound interval number to find its simple equivalent (which shares the exact same quality): • 9th = Octave + 2nd (9 - 7 = 2) • 10th = Octave + 3rd (10 - 7 = 3) • 11th = Octave + 4th (11 - 7 = 4) • 12th = Octave + 5th (12 - 7 = 5) • 13th = Octave + 6th (13 - 7 = 6).
8	List the exact number of Semitones (Half Steps) for every interval from Perfect Unison (0) to Perfect Octave (12).	• 0 semitones: Perfect Unison (P1) • 1 semitone: Minor 2nd (m2) • 2 semitones: Major 2nd (M2) • 3 semitones: Minor 3rd (m3) / Augmented 2nd (A2) • 4 semitones: Major 3rd (M3) • 5 semitones: Perfect 4th (P4) • 6 semitones: Tritone — Augmented 4th (A4) or Diminished 5th (d5) • 7 semitones: Perfect 5th (P5) • 8 semitones: Minor 6th (m6) / Augmented 5th (A5) • 9 semitones: Major 6th (M6) / Diminished 7th (d7) • 10 semitones: Minor 7th (m7) • 11 semitones: Major 7th (M7) • 12 semitones: Perfect Octave (P8).
9	How are Musical Intervals classified into 'Perfect' versus 'Major/Minor' families, and how do Augmented and Diminished alterations work for each?	• Perfect Family: Unisons (1), Fourths (4), Fifths (5), and Octaves (8). Never called major or minor! Expanding a Perfect interval by 1 chromatic half step (keeping letter names) makes it Augmented (A); shrinking a Perfect interval by 1 half step makes it Diminished (d). • Major/Minor Family: Seconds (2), Thirds (3), Sixths (6), and Sevenths (7). Expanding a Major (M) interval by 1 half step makes it Augmented (A); shrinking a Major interval by 1 half step makes it Minor (m); shrinking a Minor interval by 1 half step makes it Diminished (d).
10	In Baroque Figured Bass notation, what do standalone accidentals (#, b, natural), slashes through numbers (6/), and plus signs (4+) mean?	1. An accidental standing ALONE with no number next to it ALWAYS applies to the THIRD above the bass note (most commonly '#' under the dominant bass note in a minor key to raise the leading tone ^7 in a V chord!). 2. An accidental placed before/after a number (e.g., #6 or b7) alters that specific interval above the bass. 3. A slash through a number (e.g., 6/ or 5/) or a '+' sign after a number (e.g., 4+ or 6+) means to RAISE that interval above the bass by one chromatic half step.
11	State the 'Rule of 9' for Inverting any simple interval (both numerical size and quality).	When you invert a simple interval (by moving the bottom note up an octave or the top note down an octave): 1. The old size and the new size ALWAYS add up to 9: 1 <-> 8, 2 <-> 7, 3 <-> 6, 4 <-> 5. 2. The quality flips symmetrically: Perfect <-> Perfect, Major <-> Minor, Augmented <-> Diminished (e.g., a Major 3rd [M3] inverts to a Minor 6th [m6]; an Augmented 4th [A4] inverts to a Diminished 5th [d5]).
12	What are 'sus4' and 'sus2' chords in lead-sheet notation, and how do they relate to classical suspensions?	In a 'sus4' (e.g., Gsus4 = G–C–D) or 'sus2' (Gsus2 = G–A–D) chord, the chordal 3rd is replaced by a Perfect 4th or Major 2nd above the root. In classical harmony, a 4–3 suspension prepares the 4th as a consonance in the preceding chord, holds/ties it into the new chord on a strong beat, and resolves it down by step to the 3rd (e.g., Gsus4 -> G).
13	List the Roman Numeral and quality of diatonic triads in Natural Minor versus Harmonic Minor.	• Natural Minor (subtonic b^7): i (minor), ii° (diminished), III (Major), iv (minor), v (minor), VI (Major), VII (Major — Subtonic triad). • Harmonic Minor (raised leading tone #^7, standard for harmonic function): i (minor), ii° (diminished), III+ (Augmented, rarely used), iv (minor), V (Major — using raised #^7!), VI (Major), vii° (diminished — built on raised #^7).
14	Compare the construction of the four Triad qualities (Major, Minor, Diminished, Augmented) by stacked 3rds and outer 5th.	Every triad consists of a Root, Third, and Fifth stacked in thirds: 1. Major Triad (M): Major 3rd on bottom + Minor 3rd on top (outer interval = Perfect 5th; e.g., C–E–G). 2. Minor Triad (m): Minor 3rd on bottom + Major 3rd on top (outer interval = Perfect 5th; e.g., C–Eb–G). 3. Diminished Triad (°): Minor 3rd on bottom + Minor 3rd on top (outer interval = Diminished 5th; e.g., C–Eb–Gb). 4. Augmented Triad (+): Major 3rd on bottom + Major 3rd on top (outer interval = Augmented 5th; e.g., C–E–G#).
15	What determines the Inversion of any Triad or Seventh Chord?	Inversion is determined EXCLUSIVELY by which chord member is in the BASS (the lowest sounding pitch)—the spacing, order, or doubling of the upper voices has ZERO effect on the chord's inversion!
16	How do you aurally distinguish Major, Minor, Diminished, and Augmented Triads—as well as MM7, Mm7, mm7, ø7, and °7 chords—in AP Music Theory harmonic dictation?	• Triads: Major (bright, stable, 5:4 overtone match); Minor (dark/somber, stable); Diminished (tense, contracted, inward-pulling tritone vii° -> I); Augmented (dreamy, whole-tone, outward-expanding 5th). • Seventh Chords: Mm7 (classic bluesy/dominant tension demanding resolution); MM7 (lush, jazzy, poignant Major 7th half step below octave); mm7 (mellow, smooth Dorian/ii7 sound); ø7 (wistful 'Tristan chord' half-diminished tension); °7 (symmetrical 'silent-movie villain on train tracks' extreme instability).
17	What are the standard SATB vocal ranges for Soprano, Alto, Tenor, and Bass in AP Music Theory part-writing?	• Soprano: C4 (Middle C) to G5 (or A5) • Alto: G3 to D5 • Tenor: C3 to G4 (or A4) • Bass: E2 (or F2) to C4 (Middle C) Staying comfortably within the middle of each range avoids strained vocal tessitura and prevents voice crossing.
18	How do you find the Root of an inverted Triad or Seventh Chord quickly when analyzing a musical score?	Reduce all notes of the chord to a single pitch-class inventory and stack them in ascending thirds (skipping every other letter name in the musical alphabet: A–C–E–G–B–D–F–A). Alternatively, look at the visual intervals: in a 6/3 or 6/4 triad, the TOP note of the interval of a 4th IS the root! In an inverted seventh chord (6/5, 4/3, or 4/2), the two adjacent notes forming a Major/minor 2nd (a step) are always the 7th (bottom of the 2nd) and the Root (TOP of the 2nd)!
19	State the Bass Note, Interval above the Bass, Full Figured Bass, and Abbreviated Figured Bass for Root Position, First Inversion, and Second Inversion Triads.	• Root Position Triad: Root is in the bass; intervals above bass = 5th and 3rd; full figure = 5/3; abbreviated figure = (none / blank, e.g., I, V). • First Inversion Triad: Third of the chord is in the bass; intervals above bass = 6th and 3rd; full figure = 6/3; abbreviated figure = 6 (e.g., I6, V6). • Second Inversion Triad: Fifth of the chord is in the bass; intervals above bass = 6th and 4th; full figure = 6/4; abbreviated figure = 6/4 (e.g., I6/4, V6/4).
20	In four-part SATB writing, explain the difference between Voice Crossing and Voice Overlap, and why both are generally prohibited.	• Voice Crossing: A lower voice sings a pitch HIGHER than an adjacent upper voice (e.g., Alto sings higher than Soprano, or Bass higher than Tenor) on the same beat. • Voice Overlap: Moving from one chord to the next, a voice leaps past the pitch just sung by an adjacent voice on the IMMEDIATELY PRECEDING beat (e.g., Soprano sings E4 on beat 1, and Alto leaps up to F4 on beat 2). Both obscure the independent melodic clarity of the four voices.
21	What is the universal Doubling Rule for all Second-Inversion (6/4) Triads?	In ANY Second-Inversion (6/4) triad (Cadential, Passing, or Pedal), you MUST ALWAYS DOUBLE THE BASS NOTE (which is the Fifth of the triad)! In a Cadential 6/4 -> 5/3 progression, the 6th resolves down to the 5th and the 4th resolves down to the 3rd, while the doubled bass note holds steady.
22	List the Roman Numeral and quality of every diatonic triad built on scale degrees ^1 to ^7 in a Major Key.	• I: Major (Tonic) • ii: minor (Supertonic) • iii: minor (Mediant) • IV: Major (Subdominant) • V: Major (Dominant) • vi: minor (Submediant) • vii°: diminished (Leading-Tone triad) Summary in Major: Major = I, IV, V; minor = ii, iii, vi; diminished = vii°.
23	Compare Open Spacing (Open Structure) versus Close Spacing (Close Structure) in four-part SATB choral writing.	• Close Structure: The three upper voices (Soprano, Alto, Tenor) are packed as closely together as possible so that NO chord tone could be inserted between Soprano–Alto or Alto–Tenor (total span between Soprano and Tenor is less than an octave). • Open Structure: Chord tones are skipped between Soprano–Alto and Alto–Tenor so that the distance between Soprano and Tenor spans an octave or more. Note: In both spacings, adjacent upper voices (S–A and A–T) may NEVER exceed an octave, whereas Tenor and Bass (T–B) may be up to 2 octaves apart.
24	Why is the Fully Diminished Seventh Chord (vii°7) symmetrical, and how can a single °7 collection resolve to FOUR different keys?	Because a Fully Diminished 7th chord consists of three stacked minor 3rds (3 + 3 + 3 semitones, dividing the 12-semitone octave into 4 equal parts), only THREE distinct pitch-class °7 chords exist in 12-tone equal temperament! Any of the four notes in a °7 chord can be respelled enharmonically as the Leading Tone (^7) of a minor or major key, allowing immediate enharmonic modulation to 4 keys a minor 3rd apart.
25	State the Bass Note, Full Figured Bass, and Abbreviated Figured Bass ('7 – 6/5 – 4/3 – 4/2') for Root Position, First, Second, and Third Inversion Seventh Chords.	Phone-number mnemonic '7 – 65 – 43 – 42' (tracing how the Root and 7th move down relative to the bass): • Root Position (Root in bass): Full = 7/5/3 -> Abbreviated = 7 (e.g., V7). • First Inversion (3rd in bass): Full = 6/5/3 -> Abbreviated = 6/5 (e.g., V6/5). • Second Inversion (5th in bass): Full = 6/4/3 -> Abbreviated = 4/3 (e.g., V4/3). • Third Inversion (7th in bass): Full = 6/4/2 -> Abbreviated = 4/2 or 2 (e.g., V4/2).
26	What do horizontal dashes (5 — 6) or stacked pairs (4 — 3, 7 — 6, 9 — 8) under a single bass note indicate in Figured Bass?	They indicate voice-leading motion in the UPPER voices over a stationary bass note: • '4 – 3' or '7 – 6' or '9 – 8': A dissonant suspension (4th, 7th, or 9th above the bass) resolving downward by step to a consonance (3rd, 6th, or 8ve). • '5 – 6': Movement from a 5/3 triad to a 6/3 triad over the same bass note. • '8 – 7': A passing chordal 7th added to a root-position triad. • '6/4 – 5/3': A Cadential 6/4 resolving to a root-position V chord over the dominant bass.
27	Trace the exact bass resolution and tonic inversion resulting from resolving V7, V6/5, V4/3, and V4/2.	• V7 (bass = ^5, Sol) -> resolves to root-position I (bass = ^1, Do). • V6/5 (bass = ^7, Ti — the leading tone!) -> bass MUST resolve UP by step to root-position I (bass = ^1, Do). • V4/3 (bass = ^2, Re) -> bass steps either down to I (bass = ^1) or up to I6 (bass = ^3, expanding a 1–2–3 bass line). • V4/2 (bass = ^4, Fa — the chordal 7th!) -> because the chordal 7th is in the bass, the bass MUST resolve DOWN BY STEP to ^3 (Mi), meaning V4/2 ALWAYS resolves to a First-Inversion Tonic triad (I6)!
28	How does Lead-Sheet / Jazz Pop Chord Notation (e.g., C, Cm, C°, C+, Cmaj7, C7, Cm7, Cm7b5, C°7, C/E) map to Roman Numeral and Figured Bass analysis?	Lead-sheet symbols give the absolute chord root and quality, with any inverted bass note written after a slash ('/'): • Triads: C (Major), Cm or C- (minor), Cdim or C° (diminished), Caug or C+ (augmented). • 7th Chords: Cmaj7 or CM7 (MM7), C7 (Dominant Mm7), Cm7 (mm7), Cm7b5 or Cø7 (half-diminished), Cdim7 or C°7 (fully diminished). • Slash Chords (Inversions): C/E = C Major with E in the bass (First Inversion, 6); C/G = C Major with G in the bass (Second Inversion, 6/4); G7/B = G6/5; G7/D = G4/3; G7/F = G4/2.
29	Compare the five standard Seventh Chord qualities (MM7, Mm7, mm7, ø7, °7) by their Triad quality + 7th quality.	1. Major Seventh (MM7 / Maj7): Major triad + Major 7th above root (e.g., C–E–G–B). 2. Major-Minor / Dominant Seventh (Mm7 / 7): Major triad + minor 7th above root (e.g., C–E–G–Bb). 3. Minor Seventh (mm7 / m7): minor triad + minor 7th above root (e.g., C–Eb–G–Bb). 4. Half-Diminished Seventh (dm7 / ø7 / m7b5): diminished triad + minor 7th above root (e.g., C–Eb–Gb–Bb). 5. Fully Diminished Seventh (dd7 / °7): diminished triad + diminished 7th above root (stacked entirely of minor 3rds; e.g., C–Eb–Gb–Bbb).
30	What is the Tritone, how is it spelled as an Augmented 4th vs. a Diminished 5th in a Major key, and how does each resolve in voice leading?	The Tritone spans 3 whole tones (6 semitones), dividing the octave in half. In a Major key, the diatonic tritone occurs naturally between scale degrees ^4 (Fa) and ^7 (Ti): • Spelled as an Augmented 4th (^4 up to ^7, e.g., F to B in C Major): Resolves OUTWARD by step to a 6th (^4->^3 and ^7->^1, i.e., E and C). • Spelled as a Diminished 5th (^7 up to ^4, e.g., B to F in C Major): Resolves INWARD by step to a 3rd (^7->^1 and ^4->^3, i.e., C and E).
31	What are the standard Doubling Rules for Root-Position Triads and First-Inversion (6) Triads in four-part SATB writing?	• Never double the Leading Tone (^7) or any chromatically altered tendency tone! • Root-Position Triads (5/3): Double the ROOT (the bass note); exception: in the deceptive progression V -> vi (or V7 -> VI in minor), double the THIRD of vi (which is scale degree ^1, Tonic) to avoid parallel 5ths/octaves. • First-Inversion Major/Minor Triads (6): Double the Soprano, Bass, or Root (whichever gives the smoothest stepwise voice leading without doubling ^7). • First-Inversion Diminished Triads (vii°6, ii°6): ALWAYS double the BASS note (the 3rd of the triad, which is the only note not involved in the diminished 5th tritone!).
32	List the Roman Numeral and quality of all seven diatonic Seventh Chords in a Major Key versus Harmonic Minor.	• In a Major Key: IM7 (Major 7th), ii7 (minor 7th), iii7 (minor 7th), IVM7 (Major 7th), V7 (Dominant Mm7 — the ONLY diatonic Mm7 chord!), vi7 (minor 7th), viiø7 (Half-Diminished 7th). • In Harmonic Minor (using raised #^7 on V and vii°): i(M7) or i7, iiø7 (Half-Diminished 7th!), III+M7, iv7 (minor 7th), V7 (Dominant Mm7), VIM7 (Major 7th), vii°7 (Fully Diminished 7th!).