Distinguish between the look-alike roots 'arteri/o vs. ather/o vs. arthr/o' and 'ureter/o vs. urethr/o vs. uter/o'.

'arteri/o' = artery, 'ather/o' = fatty plaque/gruel, and 'arthr/o' = joint; 'ureter/o' = ureter (paired tubes from kidneys to bladder), 'urethr/o' = urethra (single tube from bladder to exterior), and 'uter/o' = uterus (womb).

What do the auditory and vestibular terms 'Presbycusis', 'Tinnitus', 'Vertigo', 'Otosclerosis', 'Cholesteatoma', and 'Ménière Disease' mean?

'Presbycusis' (presby/o = old age + -cusis = hearing) = age-related symmetric high-frequency sensorineural hearing loss; 'Tinnitus' = perception of ringing, buzzing, or roaring in the ears without an external stimulus; 'Vertigo' = false rotational sensation that the room or patient is spinning; 'Otosclerosis' = abnormal bony remodeling fixing the stapes footplate to the oval window (conductive hearing loss in young adults); 'Cholesteatoma' = destructive, keratinizing squamous epithelial cyst in the middle ear/mastoid that erodes ossicles; 'Ménière disease' = endolymphatic hydrops of the inner ear causing episodic vertigo, low-frequency sensorineural hearing loss, tinnitus, and aural fullness.

What do the anterior and posterior globe combining forms 'scler/o', 'kerat/o (corne/o)', 'ir/o (irid/o)', 'core/o (cor/o, pupill/o)', 'cycl/o', 'phac/o (phak/o, lent/i)', 'uve/o', 'choroid/o', 'retin/o', and 'vitre/o' mean?

'scler/o' = white fibrous outer coat of eye (sclera; scleritis); 'kerat/o' and 'corne/o' = transparent anterior cornea (keratitis, keratoplasty = corneal transplant, radial keratotomy); 'ir/o / irid/o' = iris (colored muscular ring; iritis, iridectomy); 'core/o / cor/o / pupill/o' = pupil (anisocoria); 'cycl/o' = ciliary body (cycloplegia = paralysis of accommodation); 'phac/o / phak/o / lent/i' = crystalline lens (phacoemulsification for cataract extraction, pseudophakia = artificial intraocular lens, aphakia); 'uve/o' = vascular tunic (iris + ciliary body + choroid; uveitis); 'choroid/o' = choroid (vascular middle coat); 'retin/o' = retina; 'vitre/o' = vitreous body/humor (vitrectomy).

Distinguish between 'Otitis Externa', 'Acute Otitis Media (AOM)', and 'Otitis Media with Effusion (Serous Otitis Media)', and what is a 'Myringotomy with Tympanostomy'?

'Otitis externa' ('swimmer's ear') = infection of the external auditory canal (pain on tragal/pinna traction, often Pseudomonas); 'Acute otitis media' = bacterial/viral infection of the middle ear cleft with a bulging, erythematous tympanic membrane and fever; 'Otitis media with effusion' = non-purulent fluid collection behind an intact eardrum without acute infection signs; 'Myringotomy with tympanostomy' = surgical incision into the eardrum (myringotomy) with placement of a pressure-equalizing ventilation tube (tympanostomy).

What do the cutaneous color combining forms 'erythem/o (erythr/o)', 'cyan/o', 'icter/o (xanth/o, cirrh/o, jaund/o)', 'leuk/o (alb/o)', and 'melan/o' signify on physical exam?

'erythem/o / erythr/o' = redness due to capillary hyperemia (erythema); 'cyan/o' = bluish discoloration of skin/mucosa from increased deoxygenated hemoglobin (> 5 g/dL; cyanosis); 'icter/o' and 'jaund/o' = jaundice (yellow discoloration of skin and sclerae from hyperbilirubinemia; scleral icterus), while 'xanth/o' and 'cirrh/o' = yellow/tawny (xanthoma = lipid deposit, cirrhosis); 'leuk/o / alb/o' = white (vitiligo, albinism, leukoplakia); 'melan/o' = black/dark brown.

What do the peripheral nervous system combining forms 'neur/o (neur/i)', 'radicul/o (rhiz/o)', 'gangli/o (ganglion/o)', 'plex/o', and 'gli/o' mean?

'neur/o' and 'neur/i' = nerve (neuropathy, neuralgia, neurilemoma); 'radicul/o' (Latin) and 'rhiz/o' (Greek) = spinal nerve root (radiculopathy = pinched/inflamed nerve root causing dermatomal pain/weakness; rhizotomy = surgical severance of a nerve root); 'gangli/o' and 'ganglion/o' = ganglion (cluster of peripheral neuronal cell bodies); 'plex/o' = braided network of nerves or vessels (brachial plexus); 'gli/o' = neuroglia/supporting CNS glue cells (glioblastoma, astrocytoma, oligodendroglioma).

What do the spinal curvature terms 'Kyphosis', 'Lordosis', and 'Scoliosis' mean?

'Kyphosis' (kyph/o = humpback) = exaggerated posterior convexity of the thoracic spine ('dowager's hump'); 'Lordosis' (lord/o = bending backward/swayback) = exaggerated anterior convexity of the lumbar or cervical spine; 'Scoliosis' (scoli/o = crooked/curved) = abnormal lateral curvature and rotational deformity of the vertebral column in the coronal plane.

Distinguish the refractive errors and ophthalmic conditions: 'Myopia', 'Hyperopia', 'Presbyopia', 'Astigmatism', 'Strabismus', 'Amblyopia', and 'Nystagmus'.

'Myopia' (nearsightedness) = light focuses in front of the retina (corrected with concave minus lens); 'Hyperopia' (farsightedness) = light focuses behind the retina (convex plus lens); 'Presbyopia' (presby/o = old age) = age-related loss of lens elasticity and near accommodation; 'Astigmatism' = asymmetric corneal curvature preventing a single focal point; 'Strabismus' = ocular misalignment (esotropia = inward turn, exotropia = outward turn); 'Amblyopia' ('lazy eye') = cortical suppression of vision from a misaligned or deprived eye during childhood; 'Nystagmus' = involuntary rhythmic oscillatory eye movements.

Distinguish between the look-alike roots 'hidr/o vs. hydr/o', 'nephr/o vs. necr/o', 'mast/o vs. mastoid/o', and 'stomat/o vs. somat/o'.

'hidr/o' = sweat (hyperhidrosis) vs. 'hydr/o' = water/fluid (hydronephrosis, hydrocephalus); 'nephr/o' = kidney (nephritis) vs. 'necr/o' = death/necrosis (necrotizing); 'mast/o' = breast (mastectomy) vs. 'mastoid/o' = mastoid process of temporal bone (mastoiditis); 'stomat/o' = mouth/stoma (stomatitis) vs. 'somat/o' = body (somatic, psychosomatic).

What do the muscle, tendon, ligament, and fascia combining forms 'my/o (muscul/o, myos/o)', 'rhabdomy/o', 'leiomy/o', 'ten/o (tend/o, tendin/o)', 'syndesm/o (ligament/o)', and 'fasci/o (aponeur/o)' mean?

'my/o', 'myos/o', and 'muscul/o' = muscle (myositis, polymyositis, Electromyography = EMG); 'rhabdomy/o' = striated/skeletal muscle (rhabdomyolysis = skeletal muscle breakdown releasing myoglobin; rhabdomyosarcoma); 'leiomy/o' = smooth/visceral muscle (leiomyoma = uterine fibroid); 'ten/o / tend/o / tendin/o' = tendon (connects muscle to bone; tendinitis, tenosynovitis, tenorrhaphy); 'syndesm/o / ligament/o' = ligament (connects bone to bone); 'fasci/o' = fibrous membrane covering muscle (plantar fasciitis, fasciotomy) and 'aponeur/o' = aponeurosis (flat tendon sheet).

What do the pelvic and appendicular bone combining forms 'pelv/i (pelv/o)', 'ili/o', 'ischi/o', 'pub/o', 'acetabul/o', 'femor/o', 'patell/o', 'tibi/o', 'fibul/o (perone/o)', 'calcane/o', 'tars/o', 'carp/o', 'metacarp/o', and 'phalang/o' mean?

'pelv/i / pelv/o' = pelvis; 'ili/o' = ilium (superior hip bone); 'ischi/o' = ischium (posterior/inferior sitting hip bone); 'pub/o' = pubis (anterior hip bone); 'acetabul/o' = acetabulum (hip socket); 'femor/o' = femur (thigh bone); 'patell/o' = patella (kneecap); 'tibi/o' = tibia (medial shin bone); 'fibul/o / perone/o' = fibula (lateral lower leg bone); 'calcane/o' = calcaneus (heel bone); 'tars/o' = ankle bones vs. 'carp/o' = wrist bones; 'metacarp/o' = metacarpals (palm bones); 'phalang/o' = finger or toe bones.

What do the dermatologic combining forms 'cutane/o (derm/o, dermat/o)', 'kerat/o', 'melan/o', 'seb/o', 'hidr/o (sudor/i)', 'pil/o (trich/o)', 'onych/o (ungu/o)', and 'adip/o (lip/o, steat/o)' mean?

'cutane/o' (Latin) and 'derm/o / dermat/o' (Greek) = skin; 'kerat/o' = horny tissue/keratin OR cornea (seborrheic keratosis, actinic keratosis); 'melan/o' = black/melanin pigment (melanocyte, melanoma); 'seb/o' = sebum/sebaceous oil gland (seborrhea); 'hidr/o' (Greek, with one 'd', not hydr/o = water) and 'sudor/i' (Latin) = sweat or sweat gland (hyperhidrosis, anhidrosis, hidradenitis); 'pil/o' and 'trich/o' = hair (pilonidal, trichotillomania = compulsive hair pulling); 'onych/o' and 'ungu/o' = fingernail/toenail (onychomycosis = fungal nail infection, subungual); 'adip/o / lip/o / steat/o' = fat or sebum.

Distinguish between the look-alike roots 'py/o vs. pyel/o vs. pyr/o vs. pylor/o'.

'py/o' = pus (pyuria, pyoderma, empyema); 'pyel/o' = renal pelvis (pyelonephritis); 'pyr/o' (pyret/o) = fever, fire, or heat (pyrogen, antipyretic, pyrosis = heartburn); 'pylor/o' = pylorus / distal gastric sphincter (pyloric stenosis).

What do the joint, cartilage, and connective tissue combining forms 'arthr/o (articul/o)', 'chondr/o (cartilagin/o)', 'synovi/o', 'burs/o', 'menisc/o', and 'ankyl/o' mean?

'arthr/o' (Greek) and 'articul/o' (Latin) = joint (arthroscopy, arthralgia, arthritis); 'chondr/o' and 'cartilagin/o' = cartilage (chondromalacia, osteochondroma, achondroplasia); 'synovi/o' = synovial membrane or fluid lining diarthrodial joints; 'burs/o' = bursa (fluid-filled sac cushioning friction over bony prominences; bursitis); 'menisc/o' = meniscus (crescent-shaped fibrocartilage pad in the knee); 'ankyl/o' = stiffness, fusion, or immobility of a joint.

Distinguish between the look-alike roots 'my/o vs. myel/o vs. myring/o vs. myc/o vs. myx/o'.

'my/o' = muscle (myocardium); 'myel/o' = spinal cord or bone marrow (myelopathy, myeloma); 'myring/o' = tympanic membrane / eardrum (myringotomy); 'myc/o' = fungus (onychomycosis, mycology); 'myx/o' = mucus (myxedema, atrial myxoma).

Distinguish between 'Mydriasis' and 'Miosis', and between a 'Mydriatic' and a 'Cycloplegic' ophthalmic medication.

'Mydriasis' = dilation of the pupil (sympathetic alpha-1 stimulation of dilator pupillae or parasympathetic M3 blockade); 'Miosis' = constriction of the pupil (parasympathetic M3 stimulation of sphincter pupillae or opioids/organophosphates); a 'Mydriatic' drug dilates the pupil (e.g., phenylephrine), whereas a 'Cycloplegic' drug (antimuscarinic, e.g., atropine, tropicamide, cyclopentolate) paralyzes the ciliary muscle (blocking accommodation) IN ADDITION to causing mydriasis.

Distinguish the primary flat versus elevated solid skin lesions: 'Macule vs. Patch' and 'Papule vs. Plaque vs. Nodule vs. Wheal'.

'Macule' = flat, non-palpable circumscribed color change = 1 cm (vitiligo); 'Papule' = elevated, solid palpable lesion = 1 cm (psoriasis); 'Nodule' = deeper, firm solid lesion >= 1 cm extending into dermis/subcutis; 'Wheal' (hive) = transient, pruritic edematous dermal papule/plaque (urticaria).

What do the central nervous system combining forms 'encephal/o', 'cerebr/o', 'cortic/o', 'thalam/o', 'cerebell/o', 'myel/o', and 'mening/o (meningi/o)' mean?

'encephal/o' = entire brain (encephalitis, encephalopathy, electroencephalogram); 'cerebr/o' = cerebrum / cerebral hemispheres (cerebrovascular); 'cortic/o' = outer bark/cortex; 'thalam/o' = thalamus; 'cerebell/o' = cerebellum ('little brain'); 'myel/o' = spinal cord (myelitis, myelopathy); 'mening/o / meningi/o' = meninges (dura, arachnoid, pia mater; meningitis, meningioma, meningomyelocele).

What do the dermatologic terms 'Alopecia', 'Pruritus', 'Urticaria', 'Ecchymosis', 'Diaphoresis', 'Eschar', and 'Keloid' mean?

'Alopecia' = hair loss or baldness; 'Pruritus' (note spelling: -itus, not -itis!) = itching; 'Urticaria' = hives; 'Ecchymosis' = bruise; 'Diaphoresis' = profuse sweating; 'Eschar' = thick, dry, black necrotic slough/scab (e.g., third-degree burn or cutaneous anthrax); 'Keloid' = exuberant, claw-like overgrowth of dense collagenous scar tissue extending BEYOND the boundaries of the original wound (vs. hypertrophic scar, which stays within wound margins).

Distinguish between 'Cataract', 'Glaucoma', 'Macular Degeneration', and 'Retinal Detachment' based on their anatomical sites and mechanisms.

'Cataract' = opacification/clouding of the crystalline lens causing painless glare and blurred vision; 'Glaucoma' = optic neuropathy with cupping of the optic disc and peripheral visual field loss, usually associated with elevated intraocular pressure (impaired aqueous humor drainage through the trabecular meshwork/canal of Schlemm); 'Age-related Macular Degeneration (AMD)' = degeneration of the central macula/fovea causing loss of central visual acuity; 'Retinal detachment' = separation of the neurosensory retina from the underlying retinal pigment epithelium ('curtain coming down' over vision, flashes/photopsia, and floaters).

Distinguish between 'Osteoporosis', 'Osteomalacia (Rickets)', 'Osteomyelitis', 'Osteonecrosis (Avascular Necrosis)', and 'Osteitis Deformans (Paget Disease)'.

'Osteoporosis' (-porosis = porous passage) = decreased bone mineral density (normal mineralization ratio, reduced trabecular mass); 'Osteomalacia' (adults) and 'Rickets' (children) = defective mineralization of osteoid matrix due to Vitamin D deficiency (soft bones); 'Osteomyelitis' = bacterial/fungal infection of bone and bone marrow; 'Osteonecrosis' = ischemic death of bone tissue (e.g., femoral head from corticosteroids/sickle cell); 'Paget disease' = disordered, accelerated osteoclast bone resorption followed by chaotic osteoblast remodeling.

What do the external eye and lacrimal combining forms 'ophthalm/o (ocul/o, opt/o)', 'blephar/o (palpebr/o)', 'conjunctiv/o', 'dacry/o (lacrim/o)', and 'dacryocyst/o' mean?

'ophthalm/o' (Greek) and 'ocul/o' (Latin) = eye (ophthalmologist, oculomotor); 'opt/o' = vision/sight (optometry); 'blephar/o' (Greek) and 'palpebr/o' (Latin) = eyelid (blepharitis, blepharoptosis, blepharoplasty); 'conjunctiv/o' = conjunctiva (mucous membrane lining eyelids and anterior sclera); 'dacry/o' and 'lacrim/o' = tear or tear duct (dacryoadenitis = lacrimal gland inflammation); 'dacryocyst/o' = lacrimal (tear) sac (dacryocystitis, dacryocystorhinostomy).

Distinguish the higher cortical and motor terms: 'Agnosia', 'Apraxia', 'Ataxia', 'Dysarthria', and 'Aphasia'.

'Agnosia' (a- = without + -gnosia = knowing) = inability to recognize sensory stimuli (e.g., visual objects, faces, sounds) despite intact primary sensation; 'Apraxia' (-praxia = action) = inability to perform learned purposeful motor tasks despite intact motor strength and comprehension; 'Ataxia' = lack of motor coordination; 'Dysarthria' = slurred/unclear speech articulation due to motor weakness/incoordination of speech muscles; 'Aphasia' = cortical impairment of language comprehension or expression.

Distinguish between a 'Sprain' and a 'Strain', and between 'Subluxation' and 'Dislocation (Luxation)'.

'Sprain' = stretching or tearing of a LIGAMENT (fibrous band connecting bone to bone across a joint); 'Strain' = stretching or tearing of a MUSCLE or TENDON (attaching muscle to bone); 'Dislocation (Luxation)' = complete displacement of articular bone surfaces so they are no longer in contact; 'Subluxation' = partial or incomplete dislocation of a joint.

Distinguish between 'Meningocele', 'Myelomeningocele', 'Encephalocele', and 'Spina Bifida Occulta'.

'Spina bifida occulta' = failure of vertebral laminae to fuse without herniation of meninges or neural tissue (often marked by a sacral dimple or hair tuft); 'Meningocele' = protrusion of a CSF-filled meningeal sac through a vertebral defect WITHOUT neural tissue inside; 'Myelomeningocele' = protrusion of BOTH the meninges and the spinal cord/nerve roots through a vertebral defect; 'Encephalocele' = herniation of brain tissue and meninges through a congenital skull defect (cranium bifidum).

What do the cranial and skeletal combining forms 'crani/o', 'oste/o', 'spondyl/o (vertebr/o)', 'cost/o', 'stern/o', 'clavicul/o (cleid/o)', and 'scapul/o' mean?

'crani/o' = skull/cranium (craniotomy, craniosynostosis); 'oste/o' = bone (osteomyelitis, osteoporosis, osteomalacia); 'spondyl/o' (Greek) and 'vertebr/o' (Latin) = vertebra/spinal column (ankylosing spondylitis, spondylosis); 'cost/o' = rib (costochondritis, subcostal); 'stern/o' = sternum/breastbone (median sternotomy); 'clavicul/o' and 'cleid/o' = clavicle/collarbone (sternocleidomastoid); 'scapul/o' = scapula/shoulder blade.

Distinguish the eyelid lesions and malpositions: 'Hordeolum (Stye)', 'Chalazion', 'Entropion', 'Ectropion', 'Blepharoptosis', and 'Xanthelasma'.

'Hordeolum (stye)' = acute, painful bacterial (S. aureus) infection of an eyelash follicle or Zeis/Meibomian gland; 'Chalazion' = chronic, painless lipogranulomatous nodule caused by an obstructed Meibomian oil gland; 'Entropion' = inward turning of the eyelid margin causing eyelashes to rub against the cornea (trichiasis); 'Ectropion' = outward turning/eversion of the lower eyelid margin; 'Blepharoptosis' = drooping of the upper eyelid; 'Xanthelasma' = yellowish cholesterol-filled plaques on the medial eyelids.

Distinguish between the look-alike roots 'col/o vs. chol/e vs. colp/o' and 'cyst/o vs. cyt/o'.

'col/o' = colon/large intestine (colectomy), 'chol/e' = bile/gall (cholelithiasis), and 'colp/o' = vagina (colposcopy); 'cyst/o' = urinary bladder or sac (cystoscopy) vs. 'cyt/o' = cell (cytology, leukocyte).

Distinguish the primary fluid-filled skin lesions: 'Vesicle vs. Bulla' and 'Pustule vs. Cyst', plus secondary lesions 'Erosion vs. Ulcer vs. Fissure'.

'Vesicle' = circumscribed serous fluid-filled blister = 1 cm (bullous pemphigoid, 2nd-degree burn); 'Pustule' = superficial elevated lesion filled with purulent exudate/pus (acne, impetigo); 'Cyst' = encapsulated sac lined by epithelium containing fluid or semi-solid material; 'Erosion' = partial-thickness loss of epidermis only (heals without scarring), whereas 'Ulcer' = full-thickness loss extending into dermis or deeper (heals with scarring); 'Fissure' = linear crack in skin.

Why must you check the organ system when interpreting the combining forms 'kerat/o', 'scler/o', 'salping/o', 'cervic/o', 'cyst/o', 'myel/o', and 'phren/o'?

'kerat/o' = cornea OR epidermis/keratin; 'scler/o' = sclera of eye OR hardening; 'salping/o' = fallopian tube OR Eustachian tube; 'cervic/o' = neck OR uterine cervix; 'cyst/o' = urinary bladder OR any fluid-filled sac; 'myel/o' = bone marrow OR spinal cord; 'phren/o' = diaphragm OR mind.

Distinguish the three 'spondyl-' spinal conditions: 'Spondylosis', 'Spondylolysis', and 'Spondylolisthesis', plus 'Ankylosing Spondylitis'.

'Spondylosis' = age-related degenerative osteoarthritis of the intervertebral discs and facet joints; 'Spondylolysis' (-lysis = dissolution/fracture) = stress fracture or defect in the pars interarticularis of the vertebral arch ('Scotty dog collar' on oblique X-ray, typically L5); 'Spondylolisthesis' (-listhesis = slipping) = anterior slippage of one vertebral body over the vertebra below it; 'Ankylosing spondylitis' (ankyl/o = crooked/fused/stiff) = HLA-B27 seronegative inflammatory arthritis causing fusion ('bamboo spine') of the sacroiliac joints and spine.

What do the otolaryngologic (ear) combining forms 'ot/o (aur/i, auricul/o)', 'myring/o (tympan/o)', 'ossicul/o (malle/o, incud/o, staped/o)', 'salping/o', 'mastoid/o', 'labyrinth/o', 'vestibul/o', and 'cochle/o' mean?

'ot/o' (Greek) and 'aur/i / auricul/o' (Latin) = ear (otalgia = earache, otorrhea, auricle/pinna); 'myring/o' = tympanic membrane / eardrum specifically (myringotomy, myringoplasty); 'tympan/o' = eardrum OR middle ear cavity (tympanostomy tubes, tympanoplasty); 'ossicul/o' = auditory ossicles ('malle/o' = malleus/hammer, 'incud/o' = incus/anvil, 'staped/o' = stapes/stirrup; stapedectomy for otosclerosis); 'salping/o' = Eustachian (auditory/pharyngotympanic) tube OR fallopian tube; 'mastoid/o' = mastoid air cells of temporal bone (mastoiditis); 'labyrinth/o' = inner ear ('vestibul/o' = vestibule + semicircular canals + 'cochle/o' = cochlea).

Neurological, Musculoskeletal, Dermatologic & Sensory Combining Forms (encephal/o, oste/o, ophthalm/o)

32 review cards on neurological, cranial, axial and appendicular skeletal, articular, muscular, dermatologic, ophthalmic, and otolaryngologic Greek/Latin combining forms, primary and secondary skin lesions, ocular and auditory disorders, and look-alike root distinctions.

Level: advanced
Languages: en → en
Cards: 32
Markdown: Neurological, Musculoskeletal, Dermatologic & Sensory Combining Forms (encephal/o, oste/o, ophthalm/o) (.md)

Flashcards (32)

#	Front (Term / Question)	Back (Definition / Answer)
1	Distinguish between the look-alike roots 'arteri/o vs. ather/o vs. arthr/o' and 'ureter/o vs. urethr/o vs. uter/o'.	'arteri/o' = artery, 'ather/o' = fatty plaque/gruel, and 'arthr/o' = joint; 'ureter/o' = ureter (paired tubes from kidneys to bladder), 'urethr/o' = urethra (single tube from bladder to exterior), and 'uter/o' = uterus (womb).
2	What do the auditory and vestibular terms 'Presbycusis', 'Tinnitus', 'Vertigo', 'Otosclerosis', 'Cholesteatoma', and 'Ménière Disease' mean?	'Presbycusis' (presby/o = old age + -cusis = hearing) = age-related symmetric high-frequency sensorineural hearing loss; 'Tinnitus' = perception of ringing, buzzing, or roaring in the ears without an external stimulus; 'Vertigo' = false rotational sensation that the room or patient is spinning; 'Otosclerosis' = abnormal bony remodeling fixing the stapes footplate to the oval window (conductive hearing loss in young adults); 'Cholesteatoma' = destructive, keratinizing squamous epithelial cyst in the middle ear/mastoid that erodes ossicles; 'Ménière disease' = endolymphatic hydrops of the inner ear causing episodic vertigo, low-frequency sensorineural hearing loss, tinnitus, and aural fullness.
3	What do the anterior and posterior globe combining forms 'scler/o', 'kerat/o (corne/o)', 'ir/o (irid/o)', 'core/o (cor/o, pupill/o)', 'cycl/o', 'phac/o (phak/o, lent/i)', 'uve/o', 'choroid/o', 'retin/o', and 'vitre/o' mean?	'scler/o' = white fibrous outer coat of eye (sclera; scleritis); 'kerat/o' and 'corne/o' = transparent anterior cornea (keratitis, keratoplasty = corneal transplant, radial keratotomy); 'ir/o / irid/o' = iris (colored muscular ring; iritis, iridectomy); 'core/o / cor/o / pupill/o' = pupil (anisocoria); 'cycl/o' = ciliary body (cycloplegia = paralysis of accommodation); 'phac/o / phak/o / lent/i' = crystalline lens (phacoemulsification for cataract extraction, pseudophakia = artificial intraocular lens, aphakia); 'uve/o' = vascular tunic (iris + ciliary body + choroid; uveitis); 'choroid/o' = choroid (vascular middle coat); 'retin/o' = retina; 'vitre/o' = vitreous body/humor (vitrectomy).
4	Distinguish between 'Otitis Externa', 'Acute Otitis Media (AOM)', and 'Otitis Media with Effusion (Serous Otitis Media)', and what is a 'Myringotomy with Tympanostomy'?	'Otitis externa' ('swimmer's ear') = infection of the external auditory canal (pain on tragal/pinna traction, often Pseudomonas); 'Acute otitis media' = bacterial/viral infection of the middle ear cleft with a bulging, erythematous tympanic membrane and fever; 'Otitis media with effusion' = non-purulent fluid collection behind an intact eardrum without acute infection signs; 'Myringotomy with tympanostomy' = surgical incision into the eardrum (myringotomy) with placement of a pressure-equalizing ventilation tube (tympanostomy).
5	What do the cutaneous color combining forms 'erythem/o (erythr/o)', 'cyan/o', 'icter/o (xanth/o, cirrh/o, jaund/o)', 'leuk/o (alb/o)', and 'melan/o' signify on physical exam?	'erythem/o / erythr/o' = redness due to capillary hyperemia (erythema); 'cyan/o' = bluish discoloration of skin/mucosa from increased deoxygenated hemoglobin (> 5 g/dL; cyanosis); 'icter/o' and 'jaund/o' = jaundice (yellow discoloration of skin and sclerae from hyperbilirubinemia; scleral icterus), while 'xanth/o' and 'cirrh/o' = yellow/tawny (xanthoma = lipid deposit, cirrhosis); 'leuk/o / alb/o' = white (vitiligo, albinism, leukoplakia); 'melan/o' = black/dark brown.
6	What do the peripheral nervous system combining forms 'neur/o (neur/i)', 'radicul/o (rhiz/o)', 'gangli/o (ganglion/o)', 'plex/o', and 'gli/o' mean?	'neur/o' and 'neur/i' = nerve (neuropathy, neuralgia, neurilemoma); 'radicul/o' (Latin) and 'rhiz/o' (Greek) = spinal nerve root (radiculopathy = pinched/inflamed nerve root causing dermatomal pain/weakness; rhizotomy = surgical severance of a nerve root); 'gangli/o' and 'ganglion/o' = ganglion (cluster of peripheral neuronal cell bodies); 'plex/o' = braided network of nerves or vessels (brachial plexus); 'gli/o' = neuroglia/supporting CNS glue cells (glioblastoma, astrocytoma, oligodendroglioma).
7	What do the spinal curvature terms 'Kyphosis', 'Lordosis', and 'Scoliosis' mean?	'Kyphosis' (kyph/o = humpback) = exaggerated posterior convexity of the thoracic spine ('dowager's hump'); 'Lordosis' (lord/o = bending backward/swayback) = exaggerated anterior convexity of the lumbar or cervical spine; 'Scoliosis' (scoli/o = crooked/curved) = abnormal lateral curvature and rotational deformity of the vertebral column in the coronal plane.
8	Distinguish the refractive errors and ophthalmic conditions: 'Myopia', 'Hyperopia', 'Presbyopia', 'Astigmatism', 'Strabismus', 'Amblyopia', and 'Nystagmus'.	'Myopia' (nearsightedness) = light focuses in front of the retina (corrected with concave minus lens); 'Hyperopia' (farsightedness) = light focuses behind the retina (convex plus lens); 'Presbyopia' (presby/o = old age) = age-related loss of lens elasticity and near accommodation; 'Astigmatism' = asymmetric corneal curvature preventing a single focal point; 'Strabismus' = ocular misalignment (esotropia = inward turn, exotropia = outward turn); 'Amblyopia' ('lazy eye') = cortical suppression of vision from a misaligned or deprived eye during childhood; 'Nystagmus' = involuntary rhythmic oscillatory eye movements.
9	Distinguish between the look-alike roots 'hidr/o vs. hydr/o', 'nephr/o vs. necr/o', 'mast/o vs. mastoid/o', and 'stomat/o vs. somat/o'.	'hidr/o' = sweat (hyperhidrosis) vs. 'hydr/o' = water/fluid (hydronephrosis, hydrocephalus); 'nephr/o' = kidney (nephritis) vs. 'necr/o' = death/necrosis (necrotizing); 'mast/o' = breast (mastectomy) vs. 'mastoid/o' = mastoid process of temporal bone (mastoiditis); 'stomat/o' = mouth/stoma (stomatitis) vs. 'somat/o' = body (somatic, psychosomatic).
10	What do the muscle, tendon, ligament, and fascia combining forms 'my/o (muscul/o, myos/o)', 'rhabdomy/o', 'leiomy/o', 'ten/o (tend/o, tendin/o)', 'syndesm/o (ligament/o)', and 'fasci/o (aponeur/o)' mean?	'my/o', 'myos/o', and 'muscul/o' = muscle (myositis, polymyositis, Electromyography = EMG); 'rhabdomy/o' = striated/skeletal muscle (rhabdomyolysis = skeletal muscle breakdown releasing myoglobin; rhabdomyosarcoma); 'leiomy/o' = smooth/visceral muscle (leiomyoma = uterine fibroid); 'ten/o / tend/o / tendin/o' = tendon (connects muscle to bone; tendinitis, tenosynovitis, tenorrhaphy); 'syndesm/o / ligament/o' = ligament (connects bone to bone); 'fasci/o' = fibrous membrane covering muscle (plantar fasciitis, fasciotomy) and 'aponeur/o' = aponeurosis (flat tendon sheet).
11	What do the pelvic and appendicular bone combining forms 'pelv/i (pelv/o)', 'ili/o', 'ischi/o', 'pub/o', 'acetabul/o', 'femor/o', 'patell/o', 'tibi/o', 'fibul/o (perone/o)', 'calcane/o', 'tars/o', 'carp/o', 'metacarp/o', and 'phalang/o' mean?	'pelv/i / pelv/o' = pelvis; 'ili/o' = ilium (superior hip bone); 'ischi/o' = ischium (posterior/inferior sitting hip bone); 'pub/o' = pubis (anterior hip bone); 'acetabul/o' = acetabulum (hip socket); 'femor/o' = femur (thigh bone); 'patell/o' = patella (kneecap); 'tibi/o' = tibia (medial shin bone); 'fibul/o / perone/o' = fibula (lateral lower leg bone); 'calcane/o' = calcaneus (heel bone); 'tars/o' = ankle bones vs. 'carp/o' = wrist bones; 'metacarp/o' = metacarpals (palm bones); 'phalang/o' = finger or toe bones.
12	What do the dermatologic combining forms 'cutane/o (derm/o, dermat/o)', 'kerat/o', 'melan/o', 'seb/o', 'hidr/o (sudor/i)', 'pil/o (trich/o)', 'onych/o (ungu/o)', and 'adip/o (lip/o, steat/o)' mean?	'cutane/o' (Latin) and 'derm/o / dermat/o' (Greek) = skin; 'kerat/o' = horny tissue/keratin OR cornea (seborrheic keratosis, actinic keratosis); 'melan/o' = black/melanin pigment (melanocyte, melanoma); 'seb/o' = sebum/sebaceous oil gland (seborrhea); 'hidr/o' (Greek, with one 'd', not hydr/o = water) and 'sudor/i' (Latin) = sweat or sweat gland (hyperhidrosis, anhidrosis, hidradenitis); 'pil/o' and 'trich/o' = hair (pilonidal, trichotillomania = compulsive hair pulling); 'onych/o' and 'ungu/o' = fingernail/toenail (onychomycosis = fungal nail infection, subungual); 'adip/o / lip/o / steat/o' = fat or sebum.
13	Distinguish between the look-alike roots 'py/o vs. pyel/o vs. pyr/o vs. pylor/o'.	'py/o' = pus (pyuria, pyoderma, empyema); 'pyel/o' = renal pelvis (pyelonephritis); 'pyr/o' (pyret/o) = fever, fire, or heat (pyrogen, antipyretic, pyrosis = heartburn); 'pylor/o' = pylorus / distal gastric sphincter (pyloric stenosis).
14	What do the joint, cartilage, and connective tissue combining forms 'arthr/o (articul/o)', 'chondr/o (cartilagin/o)', 'synovi/o', 'burs/o', 'menisc/o', and 'ankyl/o' mean?	'arthr/o' (Greek) and 'articul/o' (Latin) = joint (arthroscopy, arthralgia, arthritis); 'chondr/o' and 'cartilagin/o' = cartilage (chondromalacia, osteochondroma, achondroplasia); 'synovi/o' = synovial membrane or fluid lining diarthrodial joints; 'burs/o' = bursa (fluid-filled sac cushioning friction over bony prominences; bursitis); 'menisc/o' = meniscus (crescent-shaped fibrocartilage pad in the knee); 'ankyl/o' = stiffness, fusion, or immobility of a joint.
15	Distinguish between the look-alike roots 'my/o vs. myel/o vs. myring/o vs. myc/o vs. myx/o'.	'my/o' = muscle (myocardium); 'myel/o' = spinal cord or bone marrow (myelopathy, myeloma); 'myring/o' = tympanic membrane / eardrum (myringotomy); 'myc/o' = fungus (onychomycosis, mycology); 'myx/o' = mucus (myxedema, atrial myxoma).
16	Distinguish between 'Mydriasis' and 'Miosis', and between a 'Mydriatic' and a 'Cycloplegic' ophthalmic medication.	'Mydriasis' = dilation of the pupil (sympathetic alpha-1 stimulation of dilator pupillae or parasympathetic M3 blockade); 'Miosis' = constriction of the pupil (parasympathetic M3 stimulation of sphincter pupillae or opioids/organophosphates); a 'Mydriatic' drug dilates the pupil (e.g., phenylephrine), whereas a 'Cycloplegic' drug (antimuscarinic, e.g., atropine, tropicamide, cyclopentolate) paralyzes the ciliary muscle (blocking accommodation) IN ADDITION to causing mydriasis.
17	Distinguish the primary flat versus elevated solid skin lesions: 'Macule vs. Patch' and 'Papule vs. Plaque vs. Nodule vs. Wheal'.	'Macule' = flat, non-palpable circumscribed color change < 1 cm (freckle, petechia), whereas 'Patch' is flat and >= 1 cm (vitiligo); 'Papule' = elevated, solid palpable lesion < 1 cm (wart, mole), whereas 'Plaque' is a flat-topped elevated plateau >= 1 cm (psoriasis); 'Nodule' = deeper, firm solid lesion >= 1 cm extending into dermis/subcutis; 'Wheal' (hive) = transient, pruritic edematous dermal papule/plaque (urticaria).
18	What do the central nervous system combining forms 'encephal/o', 'cerebr/o', 'cortic/o', 'thalam/o', 'cerebell/o', 'myel/o', and 'mening/o (meningi/o)' mean?	'encephal/o' = entire brain (encephalitis, encephalopathy, electroencephalogram); 'cerebr/o' = cerebrum / cerebral hemispheres (cerebrovascular); 'cortic/o' = outer bark/cortex; 'thalam/o' = thalamus; 'cerebell/o' = cerebellum ('little brain'); 'myel/o' = spinal cord (myelitis, myelopathy); 'mening/o / meningi/o' = meninges (dura, arachnoid, pia mater; meningitis, meningioma, meningomyelocele).
19	What do the dermatologic terms 'Alopecia', 'Pruritus', 'Urticaria', 'Ecchymosis', 'Diaphoresis', 'Eschar', and 'Keloid' mean?	'Alopecia' = hair loss or baldness; 'Pruritus' (note spelling: -itus, not -itis!) = itching; 'Urticaria' = hives; 'Ecchymosis' = bruise; 'Diaphoresis' = profuse sweating; 'Eschar' = thick, dry, black necrotic slough/scab (e.g., third-degree burn or cutaneous anthrax); 'Keloid' = exuberant, claw-like overgrowth of dense collagenous scar tissue extending BEYOND the boundaries of the original wound (vs. hypertrophic scar, which stays within wound margins).
20	Distinguish between 'Cataract', 'Glaucoma', 'Macular Degeneration', and 'Retinal Detachment' based on their anatomical sites and mechanisms.	'Cataract' = opacification/clouding of the crystalline lens causing painless glare and blurred vision; 'Glaucoma' = optic neuropathy with cupping of the optic disc and peripheral visual field loss, usually associated with elevated intraocular pressure (impaired aqueous humor drainage through the trabecular meshwork/canal of Schlemm); 'Age-related Macular Degeneration (AMD)' = degeneration of the central macula/fovea causing loss of central visual acuity; 'Retinal detachment' = separation of the neurosensory retina from the underlying retinal pigment epithelium ('curtain coming down' over vision, flashes/photopsia, and floaters).
21	Distinguish between 'Osteoporosis', 'Osteomalacia (Rickets)', 'Osteomyelitis', 'Osteonecrosis (Avascular Necrosis)', and 'Osteitis Deformans (Paget Disease)'.	'Osteoporosis' (-porosis = porous passage) = decreased bone mineral density (normal mineralization ratio, reduced trabecular mass); 'Osteomalacia' (adults) and 'Rickets' (children) = defective mineralization of osteoid matrix due to Vitamin D deficiency (soft bones); 'Osteomyelitis' = bacterial/fungal infection of bone and bone marrow; 'Osteonecrosis' = ischemic death of bone tissue (e.g., femoral head from corticosteroids/sickle cell); 'Paget disease' = disordered, accelerated osteoclast bone resorption followed by chaotic osteoblast remodeling.
22	What do the external eye and lacrimal combining forms 'ophthalm/o (ocul/o, opt/o)', 'blephar/o (palpebr/o)', 'conjunctiv/o', 'dacry/o (lacrim/o)', and 'dacryocyst/o' mean?	'ophthalm/o' (Greek) and 'ocul/o' (Latin) = eye (ophthalmologist, oculomotor); 'opt/o' = vision/sight (optometry); 'blephar/o' (Greek) and 'palpebr/o' (Latin) = eyelid (blepharitis, blepharoptosis, blepharoplasty); 'conjunctiv/o' = conjunctiva (mucous membrane lining eyelids and anterior sclera); 'dacry/o' and 'lacrim/o' = tear or tear duct (dacryoadenitis = lacrimal gland inflammation); 'dacryocyst/o' = lacrimal (tear) sac (dacryocystitis, dacryocystorhinostomy).
23	Distinguish the higher cortical and motor terms: 'Agnosia', 'Apraxia', 'Ataxia', 'Dysarthria', and 'Aphasia'.	'Agnosia' (a- = without + -gnosia = knowing) = inability to recognize sensory stimuli (e.g., visual objects, faces, sounds) despite intact primary sensation; 'Apraxia' (-praxia = action) = inability to perform learned purposeful motor tasks despite intact motor strength and comprehension; 'Ataxia' = lack of motor coordination; 'Dysarthria' = slurred/unclear speech articulation due to motor weakness/incoordination of speech muscles; 'Aphasia' = cortical impairment of language comprehension or expression.
24	Distinguish between a 'Sprain' and a 'Strain', and between 'Subluxation' and 'Dislocation (Luxation)'.	'Sprain' = stretching or tearing of a LIGAMENT (fibrous band connecting bone to bone across a joint); 'Strain' = stretching or tearing of a MUSCLE or TENDON (attaching muscle to bone); 'Dislocation (Luxation)' = complete displacement of articular bone surfaces so they are no longer in contact; 'Subluxation' = partial or incomplete dislocation of a joint.
25	Distinguish between 'Meningocele', 'Myelomeningocele', 'Encephalocele', and 'Spina Bifida Occulta'.	'Spina bifida occulta' = failure of vertebral laminae to fuse without herniation of meninges or neural tissue (often marked by a sacral dimple or hair tuft); 'Meningocele' = protrusion of a CSF-filled meningeal sac through a vertebral defect WITHOUT neural tissue inside; 'Myelomeningocele' = protrusion of BOTH the meninges and the spinal cord/nerve roots through a vertebral defect; 'Encephalocele' = herniation of brain tissue and meninges through a congenital skull defect (cranium bifidum).
26	What do the cranial and skeletal combining forms 'crani/o', 'oste/o', 'spondyl/o (vertebr/o)', 'cost/o', 'stern/o', 'clavicul/o (cleid/o)', and 'scapul/o' mean?	'crani/o' = skull/cranium (craniotomy, craniosynostosis); 'oste/o' = bone (osteomyelitis, osteoporosis, osteomalacia); 'spondyl/o' (Greek) and 'vertebr/o' (Latin) = vertebra/spinal column (ankylosing spondylitis, spondylosis); 'cost/o' = rib (costochondritis, subcostal); 'stern/o' = sternum/breastbone (median sternotomy); 'clavicul/o' and 'cleid/o' = clavicle/collarbone (sternocleidomastoid); 'scapul/o' = scapula/shoulder blade.
27	Distinguish the eyelid lesions and malpositions: 'Hordeolum (Stye)', 'Chalazion', 'Entropion', 'Ectropion', 'Blepharoptosis', and 'Xanthelasma'.	'Hordeolum (stye)' = acute, painful bacterial (S. aureus) infection of an eyelash follicle or Zeis/Meibomian gland; 'Chalazion' = chronic, painless lipogranulomatous nodule caused by an obstructed Meibomian oil gland; 'Entropion' = inward turning of the eyelid margin causing eyelashes to rub against the cornea (trichiasis); 'Ectropion' = outward turning/eversion of the lower eyelid margin; 'Blepharoptosis' = drooping of the upper eyelid; 'Xanthelasma' = yellowish cholesterol-filled plaques on the medial eyelids.
28	Distinguish between the look-alike roots 'col/o vs. chol/e vs. colp/o' and 'cyst/o vs. cyt/o'.	'col/o' = colon/large intestine (colectomy), 'chol/e' = bile/gall (cholelithiasis), and 'colp/o' = vagina (colposcopy); 'cyst/o' = urinary bladder or sac (cystoscopy) vs. 'cyt/o' = cell (cytology, leukocyte).
29	Distinguish the primary fluid-filled skin lesions: 'Vesicle vs. Bulla' and 'Pustule vs. Cyst', plus secondary lesions 'Erosion vs. Ulcer vs. Fissure'.	'Vesicle' = circumscribed serous fluid-filled blister < 1 cm (herpes simplex, varicella), whereas 'Bulla' is a fluid-filled blister >= 1 cm (bullous pemphigoid, 2nd-degree burn); 'Pustule' = superficial elevated lesion filled with purulent exudate/pus (acne, impetigo); 'Cyst' = encapsulated sac lined by epithelium containing fluid or semi-solid material; 'Erosion' = partial-thickness loss of epidermis only (heals without scarring), whereas 'Ulcer' = full-thickness loss extending into dermis or deeper (heals with scarring); 'Fissure' = linear crack in skin.
30	Why must you check the organ system when interpreting the combining forms 'kerat/o', 'scler/o', 'salping/o', 'cervic/o', 'cyst/o', 'myel/o', and 'phren/o'?	'kerat/o' = cornea OR epidermis/keratin; 'scler/o' = sclera of eye OR hardening; 'salping/o' = fallopian tube OR Eustachian tube; 'cervic/o' = neck OR uterine cervix; 'cyst/o' = urinary bladder OR any fluid-filled sac; 'myel/o' = bone marrow OR spinal cord; 'phren/o' = diaphragm OR mind.
31	Distinguish the three 'spondyl-' spinal conditions: 'Spondylosis', 'Spondylolysis', and 'Spondylolisthesis', plus 'Ankylosing Spondylitis'.	'Spondylosis' = age-related degenerative osteoarthritis of the intervertebral discs and facet joints; 'Spondylolysis' (-lysis = dissolution/fracture) = stress fracture or defect in the pars interarticularis of the vertebral arch ('Scotty dog collar' on oblique X-ray, typically L5); 'Spondylolisthesis' (-listhesis = slipping) = anterior slippage of one vertebral body over the vertebra below it; 'Ankylosing spondylitis' (ankyl/o = crooked/fused/stiff) = HLA-B27 seronegative inflammatory arthritis causing fusion ('bamboo spine') of the sacroiliac joints and spine.
32	What do the otolaryngologic (ear) combining forms 'ot/o (aur/i, auricul/o)', 'myring/o (tympan/o)', 'ossicul/o (malle/o, incud/o, staped/o)', 'salping/o', 'mastoid/o', 'labyrinth/o', 'vestibul/o', and 'cochle/o' mean?	'ot/o' (Greek) and 'aur/i / auricul/o' (Latin) = ear (otalgia = earache, otorrhea, auricle/pinna); 'myring/o' = tympanic membrane / eardrum specifically (myringotomy, myringoplasty); 'tympan/o' = eardrum OR middle ear cavity (tympanostomy tubes, tympanoplasty); 'ossicul/o' = auditory ossicles ('malle/o' = malleus/hammer, 'incud/o' = incus/anvil, 'staped/o' = stapes/stirrup; stapedectomy for otosclerosis); 'salping/o' = Eustachian (auditory/pharyngotympanic) tube OR fallopian tube; 'mastoid/o' = mastoid air cells of temporal bone (mastoiditis); 'labyrinth/o' = inner ear ('vestibul/o' = vestibule + semicircular canals + 'cochle/o' = cochlea).