What do the urinalysis terms 'Hematuria', 'Pyuria', 'Bacteriuria', 'Proteinuria (Albuminuria)', 'Glycosuria', and 'Ketonuria' mean?

'Hematuria' = red blood cells in urine; 'Pyuria' (py/o = pus) = white blood cells/leukocytes in urine; 'Bacteriuria' = bacteria in urine; 'Proteinuria / Albuminuria' = protein/albumin in urine (glomerular damage); 'Glycosuria' (glycos/o = sugar) = glucose in urine; 'Ketonuria' = ketone bodies in urine (starvation or DKA).

What do the vulvar, perineal, and breast combining forms 'episi/o (vulv/o)', 'perine/o', 'bartholin/o', 'mamm/o (mast/o)', and 'thele- (papill/o)' mean?

'episi/o' (Greek) and 'vulv/o' (Latin) = vulva/pudendum (episiotomy = surgical incision of the perineum/vulvar orifice during childbirth, vulvectomy); 'perine/o' = perineum (region between vaginal introitus/scrotum and anus); 'bartholin/o' = Bartholin (greater vestibular) gland (bartholinitis); 'mamm/o' (Latin) and 'mast/o' (Greek) = breast (mammography, mastectomy, mastitis, gynecomastia); 'thele-' and 'papill/o' = nipple (thelarche = onset of breast bud development, intraductal papilloma).

What do the semen analysis terms 'Oligospermia', 'Azoospermia', 'Asthenozoospermia', 'Teratozoospermia', and 'Aspermia' mean?

'Oligospermia' = abnormally low sperm concentration in ejaculate; 'Azoospermia' (a- = without + zo/o = animal/life + -spermia) = complete absence of spermatozoa in ejaculate; 'Asthenozoospermia' (asthen/o = weakness) = reduced sperm motility; 'Teratozoospermia' (terat/o = monster/malformation) = high percentage of abnormally shaped sperm; 'Aspermia' = complete absence of semen ejaculate (e.g., retrograde ejaculation).

What do the pelvic floor prolapse terms 'Cystocele', 'Rectocele', 'Enterocele', and 'Uterine Prolapse' mean?

'Cystocele' = herniation of the urinary bladder posteriorly into the anterior vaginal wall; 'Rectocele' = herniation of the rectum anteriorly into the posterior vaginal wall; 'Enterocele' = herniation of small bowel loops into the upper vaginal vault (pouch of Douglas); 'Uterine prolapse' = downward descent of the cervix and uterus into or through the vaginal canal.

What do the female reproductive combining forms 'hyster/o (metr/o, uter/o)', 'cervic/o (trachel/o)', 'salping/o', 'oophor/o (ovari/o)', and 'colp/o (vagin/o)' mean?

'hyster/o', 'metr/o', and 'uter/o' = uterus/womb (hysterectomy, endometrium, myometrium, metrorrhagia); 'cervic/o' and 'trachel/o' = uterine cervix/neck (cervicitis, trachelectomy); 'salping/o' = fallopian (uterine) tube (salpingectomy, hysterosalpingography); 'oophor/o' (Greek) and 'ovari/o' (Latin) = ovary (oophorectomy); 'colp/o' (Greek) and 'vagin/o' (Latin) = vagina (colposcopy, colporrhaphy).

Distinguish between 'Hydronephrosis', 'Nephrolithiasis', 'Ureterolithiasis', 'Pyelonephritis', and 'Cystitis'.

'Hydronephrosis' (hydr/o = water/urine) = distension and dilation of the renal pelvis and calyces caused by outflow obstruction of urine; 'Nephrolithiasis' = kidney stones; 'Ureterolithiasis' = stone lodged in the ureter (renal colic); 'Pyelonephritis' = ascending bacterial infection of the renal pelvis and kidney parenchyma; 'Cystitis' = inflammation/infection of the urinary bladder.

What do the male reproductive combining forms 'orch/o (orchi/o, orchid/o, test/o)', 'epididym/o', 'vas/o (deferent/o)', 'vesicul/o', 'prostat/o', 'balan/o', and 'scrot/o' mean?

'orch/o / orchi/o / orchid/o' (Greek) and 'test/o' (Latin) = testis/testicle (orchitis, orchiopexy, orchiectomy); 'epididym/o' = epididymis (epididymitis); 'vas/o' and 'deferent/o' = vas deferens (ductus deferens; vasectomy, vasovasostomy); 'vesicul/o' = seminal vesicle; 'prostat/o' = prostate gland (transurethral resection of the prostate = TURP); 'balan/o' = glans penis (balanitis, balanoposthitis); 'scrot/o' = scrotum (scrotal).

What do the large intestinal combining forms 'col/o (colon/o)', 'cec/o (typhl/o)', 'appendic/o (append/o)', 'sigmoid/o', 'rect/o', and 'proct/o (an/o)' mean?

'col/o / colon/o' = colon/large intestine (colonoscopy, colectomy); 'cec/o' and 'typhl/o' = cecum (blind pouch beginning the large intestine; typhlitis = neutropenic enterocolitis of the cecum); 'appendic/o' = vermiform appendix; 'sigmoid/o' = S-shaped sigmoid colon; 'rect/o' = rectum; 'an/o' = anus; 'proct/o' = anus and rectum combined (proctoscopy, proctocolectomy).

Compare the four biliary clinical terms: 'Cholelithiasis', 'Cholecystitis', 'Choledocholithiasis', and 'Cholangitis'.

'Cholelithiasis' = presence of gallstones in the gallbladder (biliary colic); 'Cholecystitis' = acute inflammation of the gallbladder wall (usually from cystic duct obstruction; positive Murphy sign); 'Choledocholithiasis' = gallstone lodged in the common bile duct (conjugated hyperbilirubinemia); 'Acute Cholangitis' = bacterial infection of the obstructed biliary tree (Charcot triad: fever, jaundice, RUQ pain).

Distinguish the urinary output terms: 'Polyuria', 'Oliguria', 'Anuria', 'Nocturia', 'Enuresis', and 'Retention vs. Incontinence'.

'Polyuria' = excessive urine volume (> 3 L/day in adults); 'Oliguria' = low urine output (< 400 mL/day or < 0.5 mL/kg/hr); 'Anuria' = virtual absence of urine output (< 50–100 mL/day); 'Nocturia' = awakening at night to void; 'Enuresis' = involuntary nocturnal bedwetting; 'Urinary retention' = inability to empty a full bladder vs. 'Urinary incontinence' = involuntary leakage of urine.

Distinguish between 'Diabetes Mellitus' and 'Diabetes Insipidus' based on the Greek/Latin origins of their names.

'Diabetes' (Greek = 'siphon' or 'to pass through') refers to polyuria and polydipsia in both disorders; 'Mellitus' (Latin = 'honey-sweet') refers to glucose-rich sweet urine caused by insulin deficiency or resistance; 'Insipidus' (Latin = 'tasteless / lacking flavor') refers to dilute, tasteless hypotonic urine caused by Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH / vasopressin) deficiency (central DI) or renal ADH resistance (nephrogenic DI).

What do the GI stool terms 'Steatorrhea', 'Hematochezia', 'Melena', 'Acholic stools', and 'Tenesmus' mean?

'Steatorrhea' (steat/o = fat + -rrhea) = bulky, foul-smelling, greasy floating stools from fat malabsorption; 'Hematochezia' = passage of bright red blood per rectum (usually lower GI bleed); 'Melena' = black, tarry stools from digested upper GI blood; 'Acholic stools' (a- = without + chol/e = bile) = pale, clay-colored stools due to biliary obstruction; 'Tenesmus' = painful, ineffective urgent straining at stool.

Distinguish closely related hepatobiliary combining forms: 'hepat/o', 'chol/e (bil/i)', 'cholecyst/o', 'cholangi/o', and 'choledoch/o'.

'hepat/o' = liver (hepatitis, hepatoma); 'chol/e' (Greek) and 'bil/i' (Latin) = bile or gall (cholelithiasis, biliary); 'cholecyst/o' = gallbladder (cholecystectomy); 'cholangi/o' = bile ducts in general (cholangiography, cholangiocarcinoma, ascending cholangitis); 'choledoch/o' = COMMON BILE DUCT specifically (choledocholithiasis = stone in the common bile duct).

Distinguish between 'Azotemia' and 'Uremia' in renal failure.

'Azotemia' (azot/o = nitrogen + -emia) is the biochemical abnormality of elevated blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and serum creatinine levels; 'Uremia' (ur/o = urine + -emia) is the clinical syndrome when severe azotemia produces systemic symptoms and signs (uremic encephalopathy, asterixis, pericarditis, platelet dysfunction, uremic frost).

Distinguish the male urogenital abnormalities: 'Cryptorchidism', 'Testicular Torsion', 'Varicocele', 'Hydrocele', 'Hypospadias vs. Epispadias', and 'Phimosis vs. Paraphimosis'.

'Cryptorchidism' (crypt/o = hidden) = undescended testis; 'Testicular torsion' = twisting of the spermatic cord cutting off testicular blood supply; 'Varicocele' = dilated tortuous pampiniform plexus veins ('bag of worms'); 'Hydrocele' = serous fluid in the tunica vaginalis; 'Hypospadias' = urethral opening on the ventral (underside) of penis vs. 'Epispadias' on the dorsal surface; 'Phimosis' = inability to retract a tight foreskin over the glans vs. 'Paraphimosis' = retracted foreskin trapped behind the glans causing strangulation.

Distinguish between 'Acromegaly' and 'Pituitary Gigantism' based on their root words and timing of epiphyseal plate closure.

Both are caused by excess Growth Hormone (GH / somatotropin) from a somatotroph pituitary adenoma: 'Gigantism' occurs in children BEFORE epiphyseal growth plate fusion, causing proportional linear tall stature; 'Acromegaly' (acr/o = extremities/acral parts + -megaly = enlargement) occurs in adults AFTER epiphyseal fusion, causing enlargement of the hands, feet, jaw (prognathism), tongue (macroglossia), and visceral organs.

What do the urinary tract combining forms 'nephr/o (ren/o)', 'glomerul/o', 'pyel/o', 'calic/o (cali/o)', 'ureter/o', 'cyst/o (vesic/o)', and 'urethr/o' mean?

'nephr/o' (Greek) and 'ren/o' (Latin) = kidney (nephrology, renal); 'glomerul/o' = glomerulus (filtering capillary tuft; glomerulonephritis); 'pyel/o' = renal pelvis (funnel-shaped collecting basin; pyelonephritis, pyeloplasty); 'calic/o' = renal calyx; 'ureter/o' = ureter (tube from kidney to bladder); 'cyst/o' and 'vesic/o' = urinary bladder (cystitis, vesicoureteral reflux); 'urethr/o' = urethra (tube from bladder to exterior).

What does the surgical abbreviation 'TAH-BSO' stand for, and which organs are removed based on its root words?

'Total Abdominal Hysterectomy with Bilateral Salpingo-Oophorectomy': surgical removal of the entire uterus including the cervix (hysterectomy) via an abdominal incision, along with both (bilateral) fallopian tubes (salping/o) and both ovaries (oophor/o).

What do the upper GI combining forms 'esophag/o', 'gastr/o', 'pylor/o', and 'vag/o' mean?

'esophag/o' = esophagus (esophagogastroduodenoscopy = EGD); 'gastr/o' = stomach (gastritis, gastrectomy); 'pylor/o' = pylorus/pyloric sphincter at the gastric outlet (pyloromyotomy for hypertrophic pyloric stenosis); 'vag/o' = vagus nerve (vagotomy).

What do the clinical endocrine terms 'Polydipsia', 'Polyphagia', 'Polyuria', 'Hirsutism', 'Virilization', 'Gynecomastia', and 'Galactorrhea' mean?

'Polydipsia' (-dipsia = thirst) = excessive thirst; 'Polyphagia' = excessive hunger/eating; 'Polyuria' = excessive urination (classic triad of Diabetes Mellitus); 'Hirsutism' = excessive male-pattern terminal hair growth in a female due to androgen excess; 'Virilization' = development of male secondary sexual characteristics (deepening voice, clitoromegaly); 'Gynecomastia' (gynec/o = female + mast/o = breast) = benign proliferation of male breast glandular tissue; 'Galactorrhea' (galact/o = milk) = inappropriate breast milk discharge unrelated to breastfeeding (e.g., prolactinoma).

What do the obstetric complication terms 'Placenta Previa', 'Placental Abruption (Abruptio Placentae)', 'Placenta Accreta', 'Preeclampsia', and 'Eclampsia' mean?

'Placenta previa' = placenta implanted in the lower uterine segment overlying the internal cervical os (painless 3rd-trimester bleeding); 'Placental abruption' = premature separation of a normally implanted placenta before delivery (painful bleeding and rigid uterus); 'Placenta accreta' = abnormal trophoblastic invasion into the myometrium without a decidua basalis cleavage plane; 'Preeclampsia' = new-onset hypertension and proteinuria/end-organ dysfunction after 20 weeks gestation, which becomes 'Eclampsia' upon onset of generalized tonic-clonic seizures.

What do the small intestinal combining forms 'enter/o', 'duoden/o', 'jejun/o', and 'ile/o' mean in order from proximal to distal?

'enter/o' = small intestine (or intestine in general; enteritis, gastroenteritis); 'duoden/o' = duodenum (first ~25 cm / 12 finger-breadths of small intestine); 'jejun/o' = jejunum (middle section of small intestine; jejunostomy); 'ile/o' = ileum (distal section of small intestine terminating at the ileocecal valve).

How is the obstetric 'TPAL' (or 'GTPAL') notation defined in clinical charting?

'G' (Gravida) = total number of pregnancies regardless of outcome; 'T' (Term) = deliveries at >= 37 weeks gestation; 'P' (Preterm) = deliveries between 20 weeks 0 days and 36 weeks 6 days; 'A' (Abortions) = pregnancy losses (spontaneous miscarriages, ectopic, or elective) prior to 20 weeks; 'L' (Living) = number of currently living children.

Distinguish between 'Euthyroid', 'Hyperthyroidism vs. Thyrotoxicosis', 'Myxedema', 'Cretinism', and 'Exophthalmos (Proptosis)'.

'Euthyroid' = normal thyroid gland function; 'Hyperthyroidism' = excess hormone synthesis by the thyroid gland vs. 'Thyrotoxicosis' = clinical syndrome of excess circulating thyroid hormones from any source; 'Myxedema' (myx/o = mucus + -edema) = severe adult hypothyroidism with non-pitting mucopolysaccharide skin infiltration; 'Cretinism' = congenital hypothyroidism causing intellectual disability and stunted growth; 'Exophthalmos' (ex- = out + ophthalm/o = eye) = protrusion of the eyeballs (classic in Graves disease due to retro-orbital glycosaminoglycan deposition).

What do the GI pathological terms 'Diverticulosis vs. Diverticulitis', 'Volvulus', 'Intussusception', and 'Ileus' mean?

'Diverticulosis' = presence of outpouchings (diverticula) in the colonic wall, whereas 'Diverticulitis' = inflammation/microperforation of a diverticulum; 'Volvulus' (Latin volvere = to roll/twist) = twisting of a loop of bowel around its mesenteric axis causing obstruction and strangulation; 'Intussusception' = telescoping of a proximal bowel segment into an adjacent distal segment ('currant jelly' stools); 'Paralytic Ileus' = functional adynamic arrest of intestinal peristalsis without mechanical obstruction.

What do the oral cavity combining forms 'stomat/o (or/o)', 'gloss/o (lingu/o)', 'cheil/o (labi/o)', 'gingiv/o', 'odont/o (dent/i)', and 'sial/o (ptyal/o)' mean?

'stomat/o' (Greek) and 'or/o' (Latin) = mouth (stomatitis, oral); 'gloss/o' and 'lingu/o' = tongue (glossitis, hypoglossal, sublingual); 'cheil/o' and 'labi/o' = lip (cheilosis = angular lip fissuring, labial); 'gingiv/o' = gums (gingivitis); 'odont/o' and 'dent/i' = tooth; 'sial/o' and 'ptyal/o' = saliva or salivary gland (ptyalism, sialolithiasis = salivary duct stone), and 'sialaden/o' = salivary gland.

What do the pancreatic and peritoneal combining forms 'pancreat/o', 'peritone/o', 'lapar/o (celi/o)', 'oment/o (epiplo/o)', and 'mesenter/o' mean?

'pancreat/o' = pancreas (pancreatitis, pancreaticoduodenectomy / Whipple procedure); 'peritone/o' = peritoneum; 'lapar/o' and 'celi/o' = abdominal wall / abdomen (laparotomy = open abdominal incision, laparoscopy, celiac); 'oment/o' and 'epiplo/o' = omentum (fatty peritoneal fold hanging from stomach); 'mesenter/o' = mesentery suspending intestines.

Distinguish between 'Endometritis', 'Endometriosis', and 'Adenomyosis' based on their root words and pathology.

'Endometritis' = infection/inflammation of the uterine endometrial lining (often postpartum or PID); 'Endometriosis' (-osis = abnormal condition) = presence of functioning endometrial glands and stroma OUTSIDE the uterus (e.g., ovaries 'chocolate cysts', pelvic peritoneum); 'Adenomyosis' (aden/o = gland + my/o = muscle + -osis) = invasion of endometrial tissue directly into the muscular wall (myometrium) of the uterus.

What do the endocrine combining forms 'aden/o', 'hypophys/o (pituitar/o)', 'pineal/o', 'thyr/o (thyroid/o)', 'parathyroid/o', 'adren/o (supraren/o)', and 'gonad/o' mean?

'aden/o' = gland (adenoma); 'hypophys/o' and 'pituitar/o' = pituitary gland (hypophysectomy, panhypopituitarism); 'pineal/o' = pineal gland (secretes melatonin); 'thyr/o / thyroid/o' = thyroid gland ('shield-shaped'; thyromegaly/goiter, thyroidectomy); 'parathyroid/o' = parathyroid glands; 'adren/o / supraren/o' = adrenal glands (adrenalectomy, adrenarche); 'gonad/o' = sex glands (ovaries and testes).

What do the metabolic and endocrine roots 'crin/o', 'glyc/o (glucos/o)', 'kal/i', 'natr/i', 'calc/i', 'ket/o (aceton/o)', and 'toxic/o' mean?

'crin/o' = to secrete (endocrinology); 'glyc/o / glucos/o' = sugar/glucose (glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, hypoglycemia); 'kal/i' = potassium (hyperkalemia, hypokalemia); 'natr/i' = sodium (hyponatremia, natriuresis); 'calc/i' = calcium (hypercalcemia, hypocalcemia); 'ket/o' and 'aceton/o' = ketones/acetone (ketoacidosis, acetonuria); 'toxic/o' = poison (thyrotoxicosis = clinical state of excess circulating thyroid hormones).

Distinguish the menstrual terminology: 'Menarche', 'Menopause', 'Amenorrhea', 'Dysmenorrhea', 'Menorrhagia', 'Metrorrhagia', and 'Menometrorrhagia'.

'Menarche' (men/o = month/menses + -arche = beginning) = first menstrual period at puberty; 'Menopause' = permanent cessation of menses (> 12 months); 'Amenorrhea' = absence of menstruation; 'Dysmenorrhea' = painful menstruation/cramping; 'Menorrhagia' = abnormally heavy or prolonged menstrual bleeding at REGULAR intervals; 'Metrorrhagia' (metr/o = uterus) = uterine bleeding at IRREGULAR intervals between periods; 'Menometrorrhagia' = heavy bleeding both during menses and at irregular intervals.

What do the obstetric combining forms 'gravid/o (cyes/o)', 'par/o (part/o, toc/o)', 'nat/i', 'amni/o', 'chori/o', and 'placent/o' mean?

'gravid/o' and 'cyes/o' = pregnancy (primigravida, pseudocyesis = false pregnancy); 'par/o', 'part/o', and 'toc/o' = labor/childbirth/bearing offspring (postpartum, dystocia = difficult labor, oxytocin, tocolytic); 'nat/i' = birth (neonate, prenatal); 'amni/o' = amnion/amniotic sac (amniocentesis, chorioamnionitis); 'chori/o' = chorion (outer fetal membrane; choriocarcinoma); 'placent/o' = placenta (uteroplacental, placentitis).

Gastrointestinal, Hepatobiliary, Renal & Endocrine Combining Forms (gastr/o, hepat/o, nephr/o)

32 review cards on gastrointestinal, hepatobiliary, pancreatic, urinary, female and male reproductive, obstetric, and endocrine Greek/Latin combining forms, including biliary and renal pathologies, GTPAL charting, menstrual and pelvic floor disorders, and metabolic syndromes.

Level: intermediate
Languages: en → en
Cards: 32
Markdown: Gastrointestinal, Hepatobiliary, Renal & Endocrine Combining Forms (gastr/o, hepat/o, nephr/o) (.md)

Flashcards (32)

#	Front (Term / Question)	Back (Definition / Answer)
1	What do the urinalysis terms 'Hematuria', 'Pyuria', 'Bacteriuria', 'Proteinuria (Albuminuria)', 'Glycosuria', and 'Ketonuria' mean?	'Hematuria' = red blood cells in urine; 'Pyuria' (py/o = pus) = white blood cells/leukocytes in urine; 'Bacteriuria' = bacteria in urine; 'Proteinuria / Albuminuria' = protein/albumin in urine (glomerular damage); 'Glycosuria' (glycos/o = sugar) = glucose in urine; 'Ketonuria' = ketone bodies in urine (starvation or DKA).
2	What do the vulvar, perineal, and breast combining forms 'episi/o (vulv/o)', 'perine/o', 'bartholin/o', 'mamm/o (mast/o)', and 'thele- (papill/o)' mean?	'episi/o' (Greek) and 'vulv/o' (Latin) = vulva/pudendum (episiotomy = surgical incision of the perineum/vulvar orifice during childbirth, vulvectomy); 'perine/o' = perineum (region between vaginal introitus/scrotum and anus); 'bartholin/o' = Bartholin (greater vestibular) gland (bartholinitis); 'mamm/o' (Latin) and 'mast/o' (Greek) = breast (mammography, mastectomy, mastitis, gynecomastia); 'thele-' and 'papill/o' = nipple (thelarche = onset of breast bud development, intraductal papilloma).
3	What do the semen analysis terms 'Oligospermia', 'Azoospermia', 'Asthenozoospermia', 'Teratozoospermia', and 'Aspermia' mean?	'Oligospermia' = abnormally low sperm concentration in ejaculate; 'Azoospermia' (a- = without + zo/o = animal/life + -spermia) = complete absence of spermatozoa in ejaculate; 'Asthenozoospermia' (asthen/o = weakness) = reduced sperm motility; 'Teratozoospermia' (terat/o = monster/malformation) = high percentage of abnormally shaped sperm; 'Aspermia' = complete absence of semen ejaculate (e.g., retrograde ejaculation).
4	What do the pelvic floor prolapse terms 'Cystocele', 'Rectocele', 'Enterocele', and 'Uterine Prolapse' mean?	'Cystocele' = herniation of the urinary bladder posteriorly into the anterior vaginal wall; 'Rectocele' = herniation of the rectum anteriorly into the posterior vaginal wall; 'Enterocele' = herniation of small bowel loops into the upper vaginal vault (pouch of Douglas); 'Uterine prolapse' = downward descent of the cervix and uterus into or through the vaginal canal.
5	What do the female reproductive combining forms 'hyster/o (metr/o, uter/o)', 'cervic/o (trachel/o)', 'salping/o', 'oophor/o (ovari/o)', and 'colp/o (vagin/o)' mean?	'hyster/o', 'metr/o', and 'uter/o' = uterus/womb (hysterectomy, endometrium, myometrium, metrorrhagia); 'cervic/o' and 'trachel/o' = uterine cervix/neck (cervicitis, trachelectomy); 'salping/o' = fallopian (uterine) tube (salpingectomy, hysterosalpingography); 'oophor/o' (Greek) and 'ovari/o' (Latin) = ovary (oophorectomy); 'colp/o' (Greek) and 'vagin/o' (Latin) = vagina (colposcopy, colporrhaphy).
6	Distinguish between 'Hydronephrosis', 'Nephrolithiasis', 'Ureterolithiasis', 'Pyelonephritis', and 'Cystitis'.	'Hydronephrosis' (hydr/o = water/urine) = distension and dilation of the renal pelvis and calyces caused by outflow obstruction of urine; 'Nephrolithiasis' = kidney stones; 'Ureterolithiasis' = stone lodged in the ureter (renal colic); 'Pyelonephritis' = ascending bacterial infection of the renal pelvis and kidney parenchyma; 'Cystitis' = inflammation/infection of the urinary bladder.
7	What do the male reproductive combining forms 'orch/o (orchi/o, orchid/o, test/o)', 'epididym/o', 'vas/o (deferent/o)', 'vesicul/o', 'prostat/o', 'balan/o', and 'scrot/o' mean?	'orch/o / orchi/o / orchid/o' (Greek) and 'test/o' (Latin) = testis/testicle (orchitis, orchiopexy, orchiectomy); 'epididym/o' = epididymis (epididymitis); 'vas/o' and 'deferent/o' = vas deferens (ductus deferens; vasectomy, vasovasostomy); 'vesicul/o' = seminal vesicle; 'prostat/o' = prostate gland (transurethral resection of the prostate = TURP); 'balan/o' = glans penis (balanitis, balanoposthitis); 'scrot/o' = scrotum (scrotal).
8	What do the large intestinal combining forms 'col/o (colon/o)', 'cec/o (typhl/o)', 'appendic/o (append/o)', 'sigmoid/o', 'rect/o', and 'proct/o (an/o)' mean?	'col/o / colon/o' = colon/large intestine (colonoscopy, colectomy); 'cec/o' and 'typhl/o' = cecum (blind pouch beginning the large intestine; typhlitis = neutropenic enterocolitis of the cecum); 'appendic/o' = vermiform appendix; 'sigmoid/o' = S-shaped sigmoid colon; 'rect/o' = rectum; 'an/o' = anus; 'proct/o' = anus and rectum combined (proctoscopy, proctocolectomy).
9	Compare the four biliary clinical terms: 'Cholelithiasis', 'Cholecystitis', 'Choledocholithiasis', and 'Cholangitis'.	'Cholelithiasis' = presence of gallstones in the gallbladder (biliary colic); 'Cholecystitis' = acute inflammation of the gallbladder wall (usually from cystic duct obstruction; positive Murphy sign); 'Choledocholithiasis' = gallstone lodged in the common bile duct (conjugated hyperbilirubinemia); 'Acute Cholangitis' = bacterial infection of the obstructed biliary tree (Charcot triad: fever, jaundice, RUQ pain).
10	Distinguish the urinary output terms: 'Polyuria', 'Oliguria', 'Anuria', 'Nocturia', 'Enuresis', and 'Retention vs. Incontinence'.	'Polyuria' = excessive urine volume (> 3 L/day in adults); 'Oliguria' = low urine output (< 400 mL/day or < 0.5 mL/kg/hr); 'Anuria' = virtual absence of urine output (< 50–100 mL/day); 'Nocturia' = awakening at night to void; 'Enuresis' = involuntary nocturnal bedwetting; 'Urinary retention' = inability to empty a full bladder vs. 'Urinary incontinence' = involuntary leakage of urine.
11	Distinguish between 'Diabetes Mellitus' and 'Diabetes Insipidus' based on the Greek/Latin origins of their names.	'Diabetes' (Greek = 'siphon' or 'to pass through') refers to polyuria and polydipsia in both disorders; 'Mellitus' (Latin = 'honey-sweet') refers to glucose-rich sweet urine caused by insulin deficiency or resistance; 'Insipidus' (Latin = 'tasteless / lacking flavor') refers to dilute, tasteless hypotonic urine caused by Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH / vasopressin) deficiency (central DI) or renal ADH resistance (nephrogenic DI).
12	What do the GI stool terms 'Steatorrhea', 'Hematochezia', 'Melena', 'Acholic stools', and 'Tenesmus' mean?	'Steatorrhea' (steat/o = fat + -rrhea) = bulky, foul-smelling, greasy floating stools from fat malabsorption; 'Hematochezia' = passage of bright red blood per rectum (usually lower GI bleed); 'Melena' = black, tarry stools from digested upper GI blood; 'Acholic stools' (a- = without + chol/e = bile) = pale, clay-colored stools due to biliary obstruction; 'Tenesmus' = painful, ineffective urgent straining at stool.
13	Distinguish closely related hepatobiliary combining forms: 'hepat/o', 'chol/e (bil/i)', 'cholecyst/o', 'cholangi/o', and 'choledoch/o'.	'hepat/o' = liver (hepatitis, hepatoma); 'chol/e' (Greek) and 'bil/i' (Latin) = bile or gall (cholelithiasis, biliary); 'cholecyst/o' = gallbladder (cholecystectomy); 'cholangi/o' = bile ducts in general (cholangiography, cholangiocarcinoma, ascending cholangitis); 'choledoch/o' = COMMON BILE DUCT specifically (choledocholithiasis = stone in the common bile duct).
14	Distinguish between 'Azotemia' and 'Uremia' in renal failure.	'Azotemia' (azot/o = nitrogen + -emia) is the biochemical abnormality of elevated blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and serum creatinine levels; 'Uremia' (ur/o = urine + -emia) is the clinical syndrome when severe azotemia produces systemic symptoms and signs (uremic encephalopathy, asterixis, pericarditis, platelet dysfunction, uremic frost).
15	Distinguish the male urogenital abnormalities: 'Cryptorchidism', 'Testicular Torsion', 'Varicocele', 'Hydrocele', 'Hypospadias vs. Epispadias', and 'Phimosis vs. Paraphimosis'.	'Cryptorchidism' (crypt/o = hidden) = undescended testis; 'Testicular torsion' = twisting of the spermatic cord cutting off testicular blood supply; 'Varicocele' = dilated tortuous pampiniform plexus veins ('bag of worms'); 'Hydrocele' = serous fluid in the tunica vaginalis; 'Hypospadias' = urethral opening on the ventral (underside) of penis vs. 'Epispadias' on the dorsal surface; 'Phimosis' = inability to retract a tight foreskin over the glans vs. 'Paraphimosis' = retracted foreskin trapped behind the glans causing strangulation.
16	Distinguish between 'Acromegaly' and 'Pituitary Gigantism' based on their root words and timing of epiphyseal plate closure.	Both are caused by excess Growth Hormone (GH / somatotropin) from a somatotroph pituitary adenoma: 'Gigantism' occurs in children BEFORE epiphyseal growth plate fusion, causing proportional linear tall stature; 'Acromegaly' (acr/o = extremities/acral parts + -megaly = enlargement) occurs in adults AFTER epiphyseal fusion, causing enlargement of the hands, feet, jaw (prognathism), tongue (macroglossia), and visceral organs.
17	What do the urinary tract combining forms 'nephr/o (ren/o)', 'glomerul/o', 'pyel/o', 'calic/o (cali/o)', 'ureter/o', 'cyst/o (vesic/o)', and 'urethr/o' mean?	'nephr/o' (Greek) and 'ren/o' (Latin) = kidney (nephrology, renal); 'glomerul/o' = glomerulus (filtering capillary tuft; glomerulonephritis); 'pyel/o' = renal pelvis (funnel-shaped collecting basin; pyelonephritis, pyeloplasty); 'calic/o' = renal calyx; 'ureter/o' = ureter (tube from kidney to bladder); 'cyst/o' and 'vesic/o' = urinary bladder (cystitis, vesicoureteral reflux); 'urethr/o' = urethra (tube from bladder to exterior).
18	What does the surgical abbreviation 'TAH-BSO' stand for, and which organs are removed based on its root words?	'Total Abdominal Hysterectomy with Bilateral Salpingo-Oophorectomy': surgical removal of the entire uterus including the cervix (hysterectomy) via an abdominal incision, along with both (bilateral) fallopian tubes (salping/o) and both ovaries (oophor/o).
19	What do the upper GI combining forms 'esophag/o', 'gastr/o', 'pylor/o', and 'vag/o' mean?	'esophag/o' = esophagus (esophagogastroduodenoscopy = EGD); 'gastr/o' = stomach (gastritis, gastrectomy); 'pylor/o' = pylorus/pyloric sphincter at the gastric outlet (pyloromyotomy for hypertrophic pyloric stenosis); 'vag/o' = vagus nerve (vagotomy).
20	What do the clinical endocrine terms 'Polydipsia', 'Polyphagia', 'Polyuria', 'Hirsutism', 'Virilization', 'Gynecomastia', and 'Galactorrhea' mean?	'Polydipsia' (-dipsia = thirst) = excessive thirst; 'Polyphagia' = excessive hunger/eating; 'Polyuria' = excessive urination (classic triad of Diabetes Mellitus); 'Hirsutism' = excessive male-pattern terminal hair growth in a female due to androgen excess; 'Virilization' = development of male secondary sexual characteristics (deepening voice, clitoromegaly); 'Gynecomastia' (gynec/o = female + mast/o = breast) = benign proliferation of male breast glandular tissue; 'Galactorrhea' (galact/o = milk) = inappropriate breast milk discharge unrelated to breastfeeding (e.g., prolactinoma).
21	What do the obstetric complication terms 'Placenta Previa', 'Placental Abruption (Abruptio Placentae)', 'Placenta Accreta', 'Preeclampsia', and 'Eclampsia' mean?	'Placenta previa' = placenta implanted in the lower uterine segment overlying the internal cervical os (painless 3rd-trimester bleeding); 'Placental abruption' = premature separation of a normally implanted placenta before delivery (painful bleeding and rigid uterus); 'Placenta accreta' = abnormal trophoblastic invasion into the myometrium without a decidua basalis cleavage plane; 'Preeclampsia' = new-onset hypertension and proteinuria/end-organ dysfunction after 20 weeks gestation, which becomes 'Eclampsia' upon onset of generalized tonic-clonic seizures.
22	What do the small intestinal combining forms 'enter/o', 'duoden/o', 'jejun/o', and 'ile/o' mean in order from proximal to distal?	'enter/o' = small intestine (or intestine in general; enteritis, gastroenteritis); 'duoden/o' = duodenum (first ~25 cm / 12 finger-breadths of small intestine); 'jejun/o' = jejunum (middle section of small intestine; jejunostomy); 'ile/o' = ileum (distal section of small intestine terminating at the ileocecal valve).
23	How is the obstetric 'TPAL' (or 'GTPAL') notation defined in clinical charting?	'G' (Gravida) = total number of pregnancies regardless of outcome; 'T' (Term) = deliveries at >= 37 weeks gestation; 'P' (Preterm) = deliveries between 20 weeks 0 days and 36 weeks 6 days; 'A' (Abortions) = pregnancy losses (spontaneous miscarriages, ectopic, or elective) prior to 20 weeks; 'L' (Living) = number of currently living children.
24	Distinguish between 'Euthyroid', 'Hyperthyroidism vs. Thyrotoxicosis', 'Myxedema', 'Cretinism', and 'Exophthalmos (Proptosis)'.	'Euthyroid' = normal thyroid gland function; 'Hyperthyroidism' = excess hormone synthesis by the thyroid gland vs. 'Thyrotoxicosis' = clinical syndrome of excess circulating thyroid hormones from any source; 'Myxedema' (myx/o = mucus + -edema) = severe adult hypothyroidism with non-pitting mucopolysaccharide skin infiltration; 'Cretinism' = congenital hypothyroidism causing intellectual disability and stunted growth; 'Exophthalmos' (ex- = out + ophthalm/o = eye) = protrusion of the eyeballs (classic in Graves disease due to retro-orbital glycosaminoglycan deposition).
25	What do the GI pathological terms 'Diverticulosis vs. Diverticulitis', 'Volvulus', 'Intussusception', and 'Ileus' mean?	'Diverticulosis' = presence of outpouchings (diverticula) in the colonic wall, whereas 'Diverticulitis' = inflammation/microperforation of a diverticulum; 'Volvulus' (Latin volvere = to roll/twist) = twisting of a loop of bowel around its mesenteric axis causing obstruction and strangulation; 'Intussusception' = telescoping of a proximal bowel segment into an adjacent distal segment ('currant jelly' stools); 'Paralytic Ileus' = functional adynamic arrest of intestinal peristalsis without mechanical obstruction.
26	What do the oral cavity combining forms 'stomat/o (or/o)', 'gloss/o (lingu/o)', 'cheil/o (labi/o)', 'gingiv/o', 'odont/o (dent/i)', and 'sial/o (ptyal/o)' mean?	'stomat/o' (Greek) and 'or/o' (Latin) = mouth (stomatitis, oral); 'gloss/o' and 'lingu/o' = tongue (glossitis, hypoglossal, sublingual); 'cheil/o' and 'labi/o' = lip (cheilosis = angular lip fissuring, labial); 'gingiv/o' = gums (gingivitis); 'odont/o' and 'dent/i' = tooth; 'sial/o' and 'ptyal/o' = saliva or salivary gland (ptyalism, sialolithiasis = salivary duct stone), and 'sialaden/o' = salivary gland.
27	What do the pancreatic and peritoneal combining forms 'pancreat/o', 'peritone/o', 'lapar/o (celi/o)', 'oment/o (epiplo/o)', and 'mesenter/o' mean?	'pancreat/o' = pancreas (pancreatitis, pancreaticoduodenectomy / Whipple procedure); 'peritone/o' = peritoneum; 'lapar/o' and 'celi/o' = abdominal wall / abdomen (laparotomy = open abdominal incision, laparoscopy, celiac); 'oment/o' and 'epiplo/o' = omentum (fatty peritoneal fold hanging from stomach); 'mesenter/o' = mesentery suspending intestines.
28	Distinguish between 'Endometritis', 'Endometriosis', and 'Adenomyosis' based on their root words and pathology.	'Endometritis' = infection/inflammation of the uterine endometrial lining (often postpartum or PID); 'Endometriosis' (-osis = abnormal condition) = presence of functioning endometrial glands and stroma OUTSIDE the uterus (e.g., ovaries 'chocolate cysts', pelvic peritoneum); 'Adenomyosis' (aden/o = gland + my/o = muscle + -osis) = invasion of endometrial tissue directly into the muscular wall (myometrium) of the uterus.
29	What do the endocrine combining forms 'aden/o', 'hypophys/o (pituitar/o)', 'pineal/o', 'thyr/o (thyroid/o)', 'parathyroid/o', 'adren/o (supraren/o)', and 'gonad/o' mean?	'aden/o' = gland (adenoma); 'hypophys/o' and 'pituitar/o' = pituitary gland (hypophysectomy, panhypopituitarism); 'pineal/o' = pineal gland (secretes melatonin); 'thyr/o / thyroid/o' = thyroid gland ('shield-shaped'; thyromegaly/goiter, thyroidectomy); 'parathyroid/o' = parathyroid glands; 'adren/o / supraren/o' = adrenal glands (adrenalectomy, adrenarche); 'gonad/o' = sex glands (ovaries and testes).
30	What do the metabolic and endocrine roots 'crin/o', 'glyc/o (glucos/o)', 'kal/i', 'natr/i', 'calc/i', 'ket/o (aceton/o)', and 'toxic/o' mean?	'crin/o' = to secrete (endocrinology); 'glyc/o / glucos/o' = sugar/glucose (glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, hypoglycemia); 'kal/i' = potassium (hyperkalemia, hypokalemia); 'natr/i' = sodium (hyponatremia, natriuresis); 'calc/i' = calcium (hypercalcemia, hypocalcemia); 'ket/o' and 'aceton/o' = ketones/acetone (ketoacidosis, acetonuria); 'toxic/o' = poison (thyrotoxicosis = clinical state of excess circulating thyroid hormones).
31	Distinguish the menstrual terminology: 'Menarche', 'Menopause', 'Amenorrhea', 'Dysmenorrhea', 'Menorrhagia', 'Metrorrhagia', and 'Menometrorrhagia'.	'Menarche' (men/o = month/menses + -arche = beginning) = first menstrual period at puberty; 'Menopause' = permanent cessation of menses (> 12 months); 'Amenorrhea' = absence of menstruation; 'Dysmenorrhea' = painful menstruation/cramping; 'Menorrhagia' = abnormally heavy or prolonged menstrual bleeding at REGULAR intervals; 'Metrorrhagia' (metr/o = uterus) = uterine bleeding at IRREGULAR intervals between periods; 'Menometrorrhagia' = heavy bleeding both during menses and at irregular intervals.
32	What do the obstetric combining forms 'gravid/o (cyes/o)', 'par/o (part/o, toc/o)', 'nat/i', 'amni/o', 'chori/o', and 'placent/o' mean?	'gravid/o' and 'cyes/o' = pregnancy (primigravida, pseudocyesis = false pregnancy); 'par/o', 'part/o', and 'toc/o' = labor/childbirth/bearing offspring (postpartum, dystocia = difficult labor, oxytocin, tocolytic); 'nat/i' = birth (neonate, prenatal); 'amni/o' = amnion/amniotic sac (amniocentesis, chorioamnionitis); 'chori/o' = chorion (outer fetal membrane; choriocarcinoma); 'placent/o' = placenta (uteroplacental, placentitis).