# Pakistan PMDC MDCAT & ECAT/NET Chemistry, Physics & Logical Reasoning: Stoichiometry, Chemical Equilibrium, Organic Chemistry, Electromagnetism & Modern Physics

> Covers PMDC MDCAT and NUST NET / UET ECAT Chemistry (Stoichiometry, Atomic Orbitals, Hybridization, Thermodynamics, Equilibrium, Kinetics, S/P/D-Block, Organic Reactions), Physics (Vectors, Mechanics, Thermodynamics, Electrostatics, Current, Electromagnetism, Electronics, Modern/Nuclear Physics), English & Logical Reasoning.

- **Canonical URL:** https://flashcards.world/flashcards/sets/ea0135c0-ebc4-4b91-a848-fb401c128da9/
- **Markdown URL:** https://flashcards.world/flashcards/sets/ea0135c0-ebc4-4b91-a848-fb401c128da9.md
- **Level:** basic
- **Languages:** en → en
- **Total Cards:** 32

## Flashcards (32 Cards)

| # | Front (Term / Prompt) | Back (Definition / Answer) | Example | Multiple-Choice Options |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| 1 | In PMDC MDCAT English (Causative Verbs & Subjunctive), what verb forms follow the causative verbs 'make', 'let', 'help', 'have', and 'get'? | Active causative: 'Make / Let / Have + Person + BARE INFINITIVE (V1)' (e.g., 'The teacher made him WRITE the essay'); 'Get + Person + TO-INFINITIVE (to + V1)' ('I got the mechanic TO REPAIR my car'). Passive causative: 'Have / Get + Object + PAST PARTICIPLE (V3)' ('I had/got my car REPAIRED'). |  |  |
| 2 | In PMDC MDCAT Chemistry (Chemical Equilibrium), write the equation relating K_p and K_c, and state the relationship when Δn = 0, Δn > 0, and Δn < 0. | K_p = K_c(RT)^(Δn), where Δn = (sum of stoichiometric moles of GASEOUS products) minus (sum of stoichiometric moles of GASEOUS reactants). When Δn = 0 (e.g., H2 + I2 ⇌ 2HI or N2 + O2 ⇌ 2NO): K_p = K_c (and K_c has no units). When Δn > 0 (e.g., PCl5 ⇌ PCl3 + Cl2, Δn = +1): K_p > K_c. When Δn < 0 (e.g., N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3, Δn = -2): K_p < K_c. |  |  |
| 3 | In PMDC MDCATLogical Reasoning (Course of Action & Critical Thinking), what rules determine whether a proposed Course of Action logically follows from a given problem statement? | A valid Course of Action must: 1. Directly reduce, resolve, or prevent the stated problem, 2. Be practically feasible and legally/ethically sound, and 3. Not create a worse secondary crisis than the original problem itself (avoid extreme, punitive, or knee-jerk shut-downs when targeted reform solves the root cause). |  |  |
| 4 | In PMDC MDCAT & ECAT Physics (Current Electricity), how does the Resistance (R) and Resistivity (ρ) of a metallic wire change if the wire is stretched to n times its original length (keeping volume constant)? | Resistivity (ρ) depends ONLY on the nature of the material and temperature (it does NOT change when length or area changes). Resistance R = ρL / A; when a wire is stretched to n times its original length (L' = nL) at constant volume (A' = A/n), the new resistance increases by n² times: R' = n²R (e.g., stretching a wire to double its length makes its resistance 4R). |  |  |
| 5 | In PMDC MDCAT Chemistry (Buffer Solutions & Common Ion Effect), write the Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation for an Acidic Buffer and a Basic Buffer, and state when a buffer has maximum Buffer Capacity. | For an Acidic Buffer (weak acid + its salt with a strong base, e.g., CH3COOH + CH3COONa): pH = pK_a + log([Salt] / [Acid]). For a Basic Buffer (weak base + its salt with a strong acid, e.g., NH4OH + NH4Cl): pOH = pK_b + log([Salt] / [Base]), and pH = 14 - pOH. A buffer exhibits maximum buffer capacity when [Salt] = [Acid] (since log(1) = 0, so pH = pK_a). |  |  |
| 6 | In PMDC MDCAT & ECAT Physics (Circular Motion), state the relationships between Linear and Angular quantities (s, v, a_t, a_c), and give the Centripetal Force and Banking Angle formulas. | s = rθ (θ in radians; 1 rev = 2π rad = 360°; 1 rad = 57.3°); v = rω; a_t = rα; Centripetal acceleration a_c = v² / r = rω². Centripetal force F_c = mv² / r = mrω² (since F_c is always perpendicular to velocity v, the work done by centripetal force is ALWAYS ZERO!). Ideal banking angle θ of a frictionless curved road: tan θ = v² / (rg). |  |  |
| 7 | In PMDC MDCAT Chemistry (Molecular Orbital Theory - MOT), how is Bond Order calculated, and why is O2 (Oxygen gas) paramagnetic while N2 is diamagnetic? | Bond Order = ½ [Number of electrons in Bonding MOs (N_b) - Number of electrons in Antibonding MOs (N_a)]. N2 (14 electrons) has 10 bonding and 4 antibonding electrons -> Bond Order = (10 - 4)/2 = 3 (triple bond, all electrons paired -> diamagnetic). O2 (16 electrons) has 10 bonding and 6 antibonding electrons -> Bond Order = (10 - 6)/2 = 2 (double bond), with TWO unpaired electrons in the degenerate π*2p_y and π*2p_z antibonding orbitals -> PARAMAGNETIC (attracted to a magnetic field). |  |  |
| 8 | In PMDC MDCAT Chemistry (Chemical Bonding, VSEPR & Hybridization), state the Hybridization, Bond Angle, and Molecular Geometry of BeCl2, BF3, CH4, NH3, H2O, PCl5, and SF6. | BeCl2 (or CO2, C2H2): sp, 180°, Linear. BF3 (or C2H4): sp², 120°, Trigonal Planar. CH4: sp³ (0 lone pairs), 109.5°, Tetrahedral. NH3: sp³ (3 bond pairs + 1 lone pair), 107.5°, Trigonal Pyramidal. H2O: sp³ (2 bond pairs + 2 lone pairs), 104.5°, Bent / V-shaped / Angular (lone pair–lone pair repulsion > lone pair–bond pair > bond pair–bond pair). PCl5: sp³d, Trigonal Bipyramidal. SF6: sp³d², 90°, Octahedral. |  |  |
| 9 | In PMDC MDCAT Organic Chemistry (SN1 vs. SN2 Nucleophilic Substitution Mechanisms), compare SN1 and SN2 reactions of Alkyl Halides. | SN2 (Bimolecular Nucleophilic Substitution): 1-step concerted mechanism with a pentavalent transition state (no carbocation intermediate); Rate = k[R-X][Nu⁻] (2nd order); 100% inversion of configuration (Walden inversion); favored by PRIMARY (1°) alkyl halides (CH3X > 1° > 2° >> 3°), strong nucleophiles, and polar aprotic solvents. SN1 (Unimolecular Nucleophilic Substitution): 2-step mechanism via a planar sp² Carbocation intermediate (first step is slow rate-determining ionization); Rate = k[R-X] (1st order, independent of nucleophile concentration); gives 50% inversion + 50% retention (Racemization); favored by TERTIARY (3°) alkyl halides (3° > 2° >> 1°) and polar protic solvents. |  |  |
| 10 | In PMDC MDCAT & ECAT Physics (Electromagnetic Induction), state Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction, Motional EMF, Self-Inductance, Mutual Inductance, and Energy Density in an Inductor. | Faraday's Law: ε = -N(ΔΦ_B / Δt) (the minus sign represents Lenz's Law, which obeys the Law of Conservation of Energy). Motional EMF across a rod of length L moving at velocity v in field B: ε = vBL sin θ. Self-induced EMF: ε_L = -L(ΔI / Δt); Energy stored in inductor U_B = ½ LI²; Magnetic energy density u_B = B² / (2μ₀). |  |  |
| 11 | In PMDC MDCAT Chemistry (Gases & Real Gas Deviation), write the van der Waals Equation for n moles of a real gas, state the units of constants 'a' and 'b', and state under what conditions a real gas behaves most ideally. | van der Waals Equation: [P + (an² / V²)](V - nb) = nRT. Constant 'a' measures strength of intermolecular attractive forces (SI unit: N·m⁴·mol⁻² or atm·dm⁶·mol⁻²); constant 'b' is the excluded volume per mole (unit: m³·mol⁻¹ or dm³·mol⁻¹). A real gas behaves most ideally at HIGH TEMPERATURE and LOW PRESSURE (where intermolecular attractions are negligible and molecular volume is tiny compared to container volume). |  |  |
| 12 | In PMDC MDCAT & ECAT Physics (Dawn of Modern Physics), summarize the Planck Photon Energy/Momentum, Compton Effect wavelength shift, and de Broglie Matter Wavelength formulas. | Planck Photon Energy: E = hf = hc / λ; Photon Momentum: p = E / c = h / λ. Compton Shift (proves particle nature of photons): Δλ = λ' - λ = [h / (m₀c)](1 - cos θ), which is maximum at θ = 180° (Δλ_max = 2h / m₀c, where h / m₀c = 2.43 × 10⁻¹² m is the Compton wavelength of an electron). de Broglie Wavelength (wave nature of particles): λ = h / p = h / (mv) = h / √(2mK) = h / √(2meV). |  |  |
| 13 | In PMDC MDCAT & ECAT Physics (Electromagnetism), write the formulas for the Magnetic Force on a current-carrying conductor, the Lorentz Force on a moving charge, and the radius/frequency of a charge q moving perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B. | Force on conductor: F = I(L × B) = ILB sin θ. Force on moving charge: F_B = q(v × B) = qvB sin θ (since magnetic force is always perpendicular to velocity v, a magnetic field does ZERO WORK and cannot change the kinetic energy or speed of a charged particle—only its direction!). Equating qvB = mv² / r gives radius of circular path r = mv / (qB), specific charge e/m = v / (Br) = 2V / (B²r²), and cyclotron frequency f = qB / (2πm). |  |  |
| 14 | In NUST NET & ECAT Mathematics (Complex Numbers & De Moivre's Theorem), state De Moivre's Theorem and the properties of the Cube Roots of Unity (1, ω, ω²). | De Moivre's Theorem: (cos θ + i sin θ)^n = cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ). For the cube roots of unity (1, ω, ω² where ω = (-1 + i√3)/2): 1. Sum of cube roots of unity is zero: 1 + ω + ω² = 0; 2. Product of cube roots of unity is one: ω³ = 1 (so ω⁴ = ω, ω⁻¹ = ω²). |  |  |
| 15 | In PMDC MDCAT Organic Chemistry (Aldehydes & Ketones), compare the Haloform (Iodoform) Reaction, Aldol Condensation, and Cannizzaro Reaction. | Iodoform Test (I2 + NaOH, gives yellow crystalline precipitate of CHI3): given ONLY by methyl ketones (R-CO-CH3), acetaldehyde (CH3CHO—the only aldehyde), ethanol (CH3CH2OH—the only 1° alcohol), and secondary methyl alcohols [R-CH(OH)-CH3]. Aldol Condensation (dilute NaOH): given ONLY by aldehydes and ketones that POSSESS at least one Alpha-Hydrogen (α-H), forming a β-hydroxy aldehyde/ketone. Cannizzaro Reaction (disproportionation/self-redox with 50% conc. NaOH to give an alcohol + carboxylic acid salt): given ONLY by aldehydes that LACK an Alpha-Hydrogen (e.g., Formaldehyde HCHO, Benzaldehyde C6H5CHO, Trimethylacetaldehyde). |  |  |
| 16 | In PMDC MDCAT & ECAT Physics (Projectile Motion Shortcuts), at what launch angle θ is the Horizontal Range R equal to (a) 4 times the Maximum Height (R = 4H), and (b) equal to the Maximum Height itself (R = H)? | Since R / H = [(v_i² sin 2θ / g)] / [(v_i² sin²θ / 2g)] = (4 sin θ cos θ) / sin²θ = 4 / tan θ => R · tan θ = 4H. Therefore: (a) When θ = 45° (angle of maximum range), tan 45° = 1, so R_max = 4H. (b) When R = H, tan θ = 4 => θ = arctan(4) ≈ 76°. |  |  |
| 17 | In PMDC MDCAT & ECAT Physics (Vectors), compare the Scalar (Dot) Product and Vector (Cross) Product of two vectors A and B, and state at what angle the magnitude of A · B equals \|A × B\|. | Dot Product: A · B = AB cos θ (scalar; maximum at θ = 0°, zero at θ = 90°; e.g., Work W = F · d and Power P = F · v). Cross Product: A × B = AB sin θ n̂ (vector perpendicular to plane of A and B by Right-Hand Rule; maximum at θ = 90°, zero at θ = 0° or 180°; e.g., Torque τ = r × F, Angular Momentum L = r × p, Magnetic Force F = q(v × B)). Note that \|A · B\| = \|A × B\| when AB cos θ = AB sin θ => tan θ = 1 => θ = 45°. |  |  |
| 18 | In PMDC MDCAT & ECAT Physics (Thermodynamics), compare Isothermal, Adiabatic, Isobaric, and Isochoric (Isometric) processes using the First Law of Thermodynamics (Q = ΔU + W), and write the Carnot Engine efficiency formula. | Isothermal (constant T, ΔU = 0): Q = W (Boyle's Law PV = constant). Adiabatic (no heat enters/leaves, Q = 0, rapid expansion/compression): W = -ΔU (adiabatic expansion causes cooling; PV^γ = constant, where γ = C_p / C_v and C_p - C_v = R). Isochoric (constant volume, ΔV = 0, W = PΔV = 0): Q_v = ΔU = nC_vΔT. Isobaric (constant pressure): Q_p = ΔU + PΔV = nC_pΔT. Carnot Engine Efficiency: η = 1 - (T_2 / T_1) = (T_1 - T_2) / T_1 (where T_1 is source temperature and T_2 is sink temperature in KELVIN). |  |  |
| 19 | In NUST NET & ECAT Mathematics (Conic Sections & Vectors), how do you classify a conic section by its Eccentricity (e)? | Circle: e = 0; Ellipse: 0 < e < 1 (where c² = a² - b², e = c/a, latus rectum = 2b²/a); Parabola: e = 1 (distance to focus equals distance to directrix; for y² = 4ax, focus is (a,0), directrix x = -a, latus rectum length = 4a); Hyperbola: e > 1 (where c² = a² + b², e = c/a). |  |  |
| 20 | In PMDC MDCAT & ECAT Physics (Atomic Spectra - Hydrogen Spectrum), list the 5 spectral series of Hydrogen in order of decreasing energy along with their electromagnetic regions and n_final values in the Rydberg Formula 1/λ = R_H(1/n_f² - 1/n_i²). | 1. Lyman Series (n_f = 1, n_i = 2,3,4...): Ultraviolet (UV) region. 2. Balmer Series (n_f = 2, n_i = 3,4,5...): Visible region. 3. Paschen Series (n_f = 3, n_i = 4,5,6...): Infrared (IR) region. 4. Brackett Series (n_f = 4, n_i = 5,6...): Infrared (IR) region. 5. Pfund Series (n_f = 5, n_i = 6,7...): Far-Infrared (IR) region. Note: The longest wavelength (minimum energy) in any series occurs for the transition from n_i = n_f + 1 -> n_f; the shortest wavelength (maximum energy / series limit) occurs for n_i = ∞ -> n_f. |  |  |
| 21 | In PMDC MDCAT Chemistry (Transition Metals & Coordination Compounds), how do you determine the Coordination Number and Oxidation State of the central metal in K4[Fe(CN)6] and [Pt(NH3)2Cl2]? | In K4[Fe(CN)6] (Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II)): 6 monodentate CN⁻ ligands give Coordination Number = 6 (octahedral); Oxidation state of Fe: 4(+1) + x + 6(-1) = 0 => x = +2. In [Pt(NH3)2Cl2] (cisplatin, square planar): 2 neutral NH3 + 2 Cl⁻ ligands give Coordination Number = 4; Oxidation state of Pt = +2. |  |  |
| 22 | In PMDC MDCAT Logical Reasoning, how do you solve Categorical Syllogisms ('All A are B; Some B are C; No C is D') and Cause-and-Effect questions? | For Categorical Syllogisms, draw overlapping Venn Diagrams representing the minimum necessary overlap (a 'Some' conclusion never follows from two 'All' premises if the middle term is undistributed, and if one premise is negative, any valid conclusion must be negative; two negative premises yield NO valid conclusion). For Cause-and-Effect statements, test chronological sequence and direct mechanism—check whether both statements are independent effects of a common underlying cause (e.g., heavy monsoon rains causing both river flooding and crop damage). |  |  |
| 23 | In PMDC MDCAT & ECAT Chemistry (Atomic Structure & Quantum Numbers), state the formulas for the maximum number of electrons in a shell (n), orbitals in a shell, and electrons in a subshell (l), plus the (n + l) Madelung Rule and exceptions for Cr (Z=24) and Cu (Z=29). | Max orbitals in shell n = n²; Max electrons in shell n = 2n²; Orbitals in subshell l = 2l + 1; Max electrons in subshell l = 2(2l + 1) (s=2, p=6, d=10, f=14). By the (n + l) rule, orbitals fill in order of increasing (n + l), and if two orbitals have the same (n + l), the one with the lower n fills first. Due to extra stability of half-filled (d⁵) and completely filled (d¹⁰) subshells: Chromium (Z=24) is [Ar] 4s¹ 3d⁵ (not 4s² 3d⁴), and Copper (Z=29) is [Ar] 4s¹ 3d¹⁰ (not 4s² 3d⁹). |  |  |
| 24 | In PMDC MDCAT & ECAT Physics (Electrostatics & Gauss's Law), state Gauss's Law and give the electric field intensity inside a hollow charged metallic sphere, near an infinite sheet of charge, and between two oppositely charged parallel plates. | Gauss's Law: Total electric flux through any closed surface equals 1/ε₀ times the total charge enclosed: Φ_e = Q_enclosed / ε₀. 1. Inside a hollow charged conducting sphere: E = 0 (since all charge resides on the outer surface, Q_enc = 0; meanwhile, Electric Potential V inside is CONSTANT and equal to the potential on the surface!). 2. Infinite sheet of charge: E = σ / (2ε₀). 3. Between two oppositely charged parallel plates: E = σ / ε₀ = V / d. |  |  |
| 25 | In PMDC MDCAT & ECAT Physics (Nuclear Physics), define Mass Defect (Δm), Binding Energy per Nucleon, Decay Constant (λ), and Half-Life (T_1/2). | Mass Defect Δm = [Z·m_p + (A - Z)·m_n] - m_nucleus; Binding Energy ΔE = Δm · c² (where 1 amu = 931.5 MeV; Iron-56 has the highest binding energy per nucleon at ~8.8 MeV, making it the most stable nucleus). Radioactive Decay Law: ΔN / Δt = -λN => N = N₀e^(-λt), and Half-life T_1/2 = ln(2) / λ = 0.693 / λ (while Mean Life τ = 1 / λ, so T_1/2 = 0.693 τ). |  |  |
| 26 | In PMDC MDCAT Chemistry (Chemical Kinetics), compare Zero-Order, First-Order, Second-Order, and Third-Order reactions regarding their Rate Law, Units of Rate Constant (k), and Half-Life (t_1/2) dependence on initial concentration [A]0. | General unit of rate constant k = (mol·dm⁻³)^(1-n) · s⁻¹ (where n is overall order of reaction). Zero-Order (e.g., photochemical & enzyme-catalyzed reactions at saturation): Rate = k[A]⁰ = k, unit = mol·dm⁻³·s⁻¹, t_1/2 = [A]0 / (2k) (directly proportional to [A]0). First-Order (e.g., radioactive decay, N2O5 decomposition): Rate = k[A]¹, unit = s⁻¹, t_1/2 = 0.693 / k (independent of [A]0). Second-Order: Rate = k[A]², unit = dm³·mol⁻¹·s⁻¹, t_1/2 = 1 / (k[A]0) (inversely proportional to [A]0). |  |  |
| 27 | In PMDC MDCAT Physics (Electronics & Logic Gates), state the Boolean expression and truth-table rule for AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and XOR gates, and state which two gates are 'Universal Gates'. | AND (Y = A·B): HIGH (1) only when ALL inputs are 1. OR (Y = A + B): HIGH (1) when ANY input is 1. NOT (Y = Ā): inverts input. NAND (Y = Ā·B̄_bar): LOW (0) only when all inputs are 1. NOR (Y = A+B_bar): HIGH (1) only when all inputs are 0. XOR (Y = A⊕B): HIGH (1) when inputs are DIFFERENT. NAND and NOR are Universal Gates because any logic gate or circuit can be constructed using only NAND gates or only NOR gates. |  |  |
| 28 | In PMDC MDCAT English (Grammar & Error Spotting), what is the correct subject-verb agreement with 'One of the + plural noun + who/that + verb'? | In 'Ali is one of the students who HAVE passed the MDCAT', the relative pronoun 'who' refers to the plural antecedent 'students', so it takes a PLURAL verb ('have'). However, if 'THE ONLY' precedes 'one' ('Ali is the ONLY one of the students who HAS scored 195'), the antecedent is 'one', taking a SINGULAR verb ('has'). |  |  |
| 29 | In PMDC MDCAT Chemistry (Stoichiometry & Limiting Reactant), 10 g of H2 reacts with 64 g of O2 to form H2O (2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O). Which is the limiting reactant, and what mass of H2O is produced? | Moles of H2 = 10 g / 2 g·mol⁻¹ = 5 moles. Moles of O2 = 64 g / 32 g·mol⁻¹ = 2 moles. By stoichiometry, 2 moles of O2 require 2 × 2 = 4 moles of H2. Since 5 moles of H2 are available (1 mole in excess), O2 is the LIMITING REACTANT, producing 2 × 2 = 4 moles of H2O = 4 × 18 g = 72 g of H2O. |  |  |
| 30 | In PMDC MDCAT Chemistry (Thermochemistry & Born-Haber Cycle), define Standard Enthalpy of Formation (ΔH°_f), Atomization (ΔH°_at), Neutralization (ΔH°_n), and explain why ΔH°_n of any strong acid with any strong base is constant at -57.4 kJ/mol. | Strong acids (HCl, HNO3) and strong bases (NaOH, KOH) are 100% ionized in dilute aqueous solution, so their neutralization is simply the combination of H⁺(aq) + OH⁻(aq) -> H2O(l), releasing a constant ΔH°_n = -57.4 kJ/mol. If a weak acid (e.g., CH3COOH or HCN) or weak base (NH4OH) is used, part of the heat is absorbed as enthalpy of ionization, so the heat evolved is numerically LESS than 57.4 kJ/mol. |  |  |
| 31 | In PMDC MDCAT Organic Chemistry (Alcohols & Phenols), how does the Lucas Test distinguish Primary (1°), Secondary (2°), and Tertiary (3°) Alcohols, and why is Phenol much more acidic than aliphatic alcohols but less acidic than Carboxylic Acids? | Lucas Reagent (anhydrous ZnCl2 + conc. HCl) converts alcohols into insoluble alkyl chlorides (oily layer/cloudiness): Tertiary (3°) alcohols give an oily layer IMMEDIATELY at room temperature; Secondary (2°) alcohols give an oily layer within 5–10 minutes; Primary (1°) alcohols give NO oily layer at room temperature (only on heating). Acidity order: Carboxylic Acid (pK_a ~4.8) > H2CO3 > Phenol (pK_a ~10) > H2O > Alcohol (pK_a ~16–18). Phenol is more acidic than alcohols because the Phenoxide ion is resonance-stabilized across the benzene ring (thus Phenol reacts with NaOH, whereas alcohols only react with active metals like Na, and neither Phenol nor Alcohols liberate CO2 with NaHCO3—only Carboxylic Acids do!). |  |  |
| 32 | In PMDC MDCAT Organic Chemistry (Benzene & Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution), classify ring substituents into Ortho/Para-Directing (Activating vs. Deactivating) and Meta-Directing Deactivating groups. | Ortho- & Para-Directing Activating Groups (donate electron density to the ring via resonance/inductive effect): -NH2, -NHR, -NR2, -OH, -OR, -NHCOR, and Alkyl groups (-R like -CH3). Ortho- & Para-Directing Deactivating Groups: Halogens (-F, -Cl, -Br, -I—inductively withdrawing, resonance donating). Meta-Directing Deactivating Groups (strongly electron-withdrawing, contain a multiple bond or positive charge on atom bonded to ring): -NO2, -CN, -SO3H, -CHO, -COR, -COOH, -COOR, -NR3⁺. |  |  |

---
Study this deck interactively with FSRS-6 spaced repetition, audio review, and multiple-choice mode at [Flashcards World](https://flashcards.world/flashcards/sets/ea0135c0-ebc4-4b91-a848-fb401c128da9/).